Description
Serious leisure and tourism experiences are important to the motorcycle subculture and form
the basis for one subculture of consumption. This paper aims to further the understanding of motorcycle
tourism demand generators so that a brand experience can be developed to appeal to this subculture.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Motorcycle tourism demand generators and dynamic interaction leisure
Diane M. Sykes Kathryn G. Kelly
Article information:
To cite this document:
Diane M. Sykes Kathryn G. Kelly , (2014),"Motorcycle tourism demand generators and dynamic interaction leisure", International J ournal of
Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 8 Iss 1 pp. 92 - 102
Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJ CTHR-05-2013-0035
Downloaded on: 24 January 2016, At: 22:24 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 42 other documents.
To copy this document: [email protected]
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 499 times since 2014*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
Salmi Mohd Isa, Lizana Ramli, (2014),"Factors influencing tourist visitation in marine tourism: lessons learned from FRI Aquarium
Penang, Malaysia", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 8 Iss 1 pp. 103-117http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/
IJ CTHR-04-2013-0016
J uergen Gnoth, Xavier Matteucci, (2014),"A phenomenological view of the behavioural tourism research literature", International J ournal of
Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 8 Iss 1 pp. 3-21http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJ CTHR-01-2014-0005
Lan-Lan Chang, Kenneth F. Backman, Yu Chih Huang, (2014),"Creative tourism: a preliminary examination of creative tourists’ motivation,
experience, perceived value and revisit intention", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 8 Iss 4 pp.
401-419http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJ CTHR-04-2014-0032
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:115632 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service information about
how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/
authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of more than
290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional
customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and
also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Motorcycle tourism demand generators
and dynamic interaction leisure
Diane M. Sykes and Kathryn G. Kelly
Abstract
Purpose – Serious leisure and tourismexperiences are important to the motorcycle subculture and form
the basis for one subculture of consumption. This paper aims to further the understanding of motorcycle
tourism demand generators so that a brand experience can be developed to appeal to this subculture.
Design/methodology/approach – A holistic approach was used to examine the open-end responses
from motorcycle tourist survey data to discover emergent trends in motorcycle tourism and compare
them to existing leisure and experiential tourism theories.
Findings – Analysis identi?ed the applicability and limitations of demand generator theory, experiential
tourism, the tourist gaze, drama-based theory and serious leisure theory when studying motorcycle
tourism. A modi?ed conceptual framework (Motorcycle Tourism Demand Generators) using core
theories, contributing theories and useful theories emerged. Studying motorcycle tourism led to
promulgating a new boundary, Dynamic Interaction Leisure, to study the motorcycle leisure lifestyle.
Research limitations/implications – Survey data were obtained from a small sample. The
questionnaire was untested. Thus, results need further testing to be generalized. Respondents may
be older than the general population of motorcycle riders. One researcher was a participant so care was
taken to ensure objectivity.
Practical implications – Tourism bureaus and businesses can better understand motorcycle tourists’
needs and facilitate creating brand experiences to improve motorcyclist’s enjoyment. Promotional tools
can be developed to encourage rural tourism that will generate substantial returns.
Originality/value – The paper modi?es existing theories that study experiential tourism ?tting them to
motorcycle tourismsuggesting a newmodel and boundary, Dynamic Interaction Leisure, to examine the
sub-cultural motorcycle leisure lifestyle.
Keywords Tourism, Dynamic interaction leisure, Motorcycle drive tourism, Motorcycle leisure lifestyle,
Motorcycle subculture, Motorcycle tourism demand generators
Paper type Conceptual paper
Importance of the market
Motorcycle tourism is a large and growing market. Ken Aiken (2011), a motorcycle touring
consultant, claims that motorcycle tourism is the fastest growing segment in the tourism
industry in the US There are numerous motorcycle events in the US that appeal to riders and
their economic impact is tremendous. The Sturgis Rally may be the best known, drawing
600,000, but other notable national motorcycle events in the US also boast attendees in the
hundreds of thousands: Daytona Races [Spring] (550,000) and Biketoberfest [Fall]
(120,000); Laconia Motorcycle Week (400,000); BBB rally (400,000); and Myrtle Beach Bike
Week (300,000). However, regional events also attract signi?cant numbers, for example:
Thunder in the Valley (170,000) and Leesburg Bikefest (300,000) (Aiken, 2011; Cox, 2011;
Harley, 2010), but there are many others. These rallies last from two to ten days and
spending in the sponsoring areas is substantial. The importance of motorcycle tourism
expands beyond the US. Studies in the UK (GHK Consulting Ltd, 2010), Canada (Economic
PAGE 92
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014, pp. 92-102, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/IJCTHR-05-2013-0035
Diane M. Sykes is a
Professor, Department of
Business – Hospitality,
Kaplan University, Fort
Lauderdale, Florida, USA.
Kathryn G. Kelly is at the
Department of Business,
Kaplan University, Fort
Lauderdale, Florida, USA.
Received 25 May 2013
Revised 28 October 2013
Accepted 29 November 2013
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Impact, 2008; The Strategic Tourism Development and Marketing Partnership for Northern
Ontario, 2006), Nova Scotia (Nova Scotia Tourism Research Services: The Motorcycle
Touring Market, 2011), and Wales (Cater, 2013) support the growth in motorcycle tourism.
Lack of existing research leads to exploring multiple disciplines
Existing research on motorcycle tourismis limited, restrictive, and fragmented, applying only
to speci?c geographic areas or demographics or user groups (e.g. Harley Davidson riders,
Sturgis attendees, BMW riders, West Virginia visitors, BBB attendees). Thus, research
completed to date tends to be localized or non-representative and non-generalizable.
Therefore, this research has extrapolated from multiple research streams, adopted a
multi-disciplinary approach, and synthesizing various literatures to develop a framework for
studying this population.
De?nition of motorcycle tourism
An operative de?nition of motorcycle tourists was needed to distinguish them from general
interest tourists. This study originates the following de?nition of motorcycle tourismto include
these three elements:
1. Motorcycle Tourism involves trips away from home whose main purpose is vacation,
leisure, entertainment, or recreation.
B The trip may include participation in sporting events or attendance at events
organized for commercial gain and/or charity, or independently organized
motorcycling (adapted from Lamont’s (2009) de?nition of bicycle tourism in Australia).
2. The tourist may be passive or active (e.g. a motorcycle passenger or the driver), and the
trip can be a day trip or involve overnight stay. Touring via a motorcycle that is trailered
from place to place also quali?es. Daily transportation does not qualify.
3. The motorcycle is, borrowing from the de?nition of Craig Morris (2009), a ‘‘two- or
three-wheel powered vehicle designed for on-road, off-road, or dual-purpose (on and
off-road) use.’’ Motorcycles de?ned for motorcycle tourism include the three major
categories of motorcycles used for touring – cruisers, touring, and sport-tourer
motorcycles. Off-road motorcycles are speci?cally excluded from motorcycle tourism.
Using this de?nition, it is possible to research questions on motorcycle tourism and possibly
event construction. Note that participants were permitted to self-de?ne as motorcycle
tourists.
Methodology
The researchers did not ?nd any existing surveys on motorcycle tourism. Thus, in order to
establish face validity and content validity, the survey instrument was submitted to ?ve
independent experts in the ?elds of business, marketing, and tourism to review. However,
because there are no other survey instruments to use to establish external validity or
reliability, the researchers recognize the dif?culty of extrapolating the data to a more general
population until other researchers conduct similar studies. Cater’s (2013) research in Wales
(157 surveys collected) was published after the current study was conducted, but the results
of both studies are very similar, thus, suggesting that external validity exists.
One of the researchers as a long time motorcyclist provides subject matter expertise and is a
partner at Steel Steeds Motorcycle Campground. Austin (2009) and Austin and Gagne
(2008) utilized this ‘‘opportunistic researcher’’ role, whereby the researcher ‘‘examines
people and social setting in which she/he is already a member’’ (pp. 73-4). Schouten and
McAlexandar (1995) were ‘‘convert researchers’’ who converted their social world to that of
motorcyclists. They ‘‘gained insights and perspectives that would have been dif?cult if not
impossible through less sustained involvement’’ (1996. p. 44). As a participant observer,
Diane Sykes took care to remain objective in observations. Having a subject matter expert as
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 93
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
one of the researchers was valuable in that the questions were targeted to the motorcycle
lifestyle and it was easier to interpret slang terms and idioms used by riders. The study
results were analyzed by the second researcher, who is not a motorcyclist, to ensure
independence and neutrality. Both researchers evaluated the results for the report.
A link to a self-administered questionnaire conducted through Survey Monkey was emailed
to a convenience sample of 651 guests of Steel Steeds Motorcycle Campground,
Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, USA. Results were collected for 4 weeks and 127 people
responded. Participation was not limited to a speci?c brand of bike, and the respondents
were permitted to forward the survey on to other motorcycle tourists.
This paper focuses only on the 11 open-ended questions because a story seemed to
emerge fromthe holistic viewof those responses. However, some quantitative data provided
clarity. Eleven questions solicited qualitative, open-ended responses seeks to understand
the unique behaviors, motivations, needs, and wants of the motorcycle tourist. Three primary
open-end questions covered the factors important in choosing both a ?nal destination and a
route, and howmotorcycling behavior has changed over the years. Response rates for these
questions were 91-92 percent. Of the remaining four open-end questions, about a fourth (28
percent) noted problems they would like to change, and a third (35 percent) volunteered
other important items they wished to share. The remaining four questions called for
open-ended comments at the conclusion of closed end questions.
Initially, drama theory seemed to provide a method of classifying these open-end responses
according to acts, scene, agents, agency, and purpose (Corey, 1997). Using the framework
previously devised appeared to be suf?cient for analysis and many responses were coded
for those elements. However, those restrictions were insuf?cient to explain the experiential
and behavioral patterns that emerged from the data. Thus, the analysis turned to the
elements fromthe initial framework to complete the analysis. The assumption that the original
framework would suf?ce did not stand and thus, more research was conducted that lead to
?nding Swanson’s (2007) Theory Framework for Applied Disciplines from the ?eld of Human
Resources.
Process of devising the framework
With so few studies on motorcycle tourism and, thus, few theories or methodologies, using
Ritchie and Hudson’s (2009) studies of six major research streams for consumer/tourist
experiences offered a road map for studying motorcycle tourism (Sykes and Kelly, 2012).
Then, existing studies on motorcycle subculture were compared to works included in Ritchie
and Hudson (2009) to delineate congruent theories. Finally, other studies on
tourist/consumer behavior and motivation were consulted. Many of the theories
overlapped. In some cases, additional theories needed to be added to explain the
congruent and emerging behavior patterns. As the open-ended responses from this study
were analyzed, overarching themes emerged to plot a new thematic course to study
motorcycle tourism. After attempting to use the revised framework, the researchers
expanded their view toward other ?elds and found that Swanson (2007) developed a Theory
Framework for Applied Disciplines using six theory components: boundary, contributing
theories, core theories, useful theories, novel theories, and irrelevant theories. That
framework was designed to function at multiple levels, establish boundaries and consider
practitioner perspectives (among other things). This paper used Swanson’s framework as an
exemplar for our theoretical framework to apply to motorcycle tourism and selected
contributing theories, core theories, and useful theories. In doing so, novel theories and a
new boundary emerged. Therefore, a new boundary of Dynamic Interaction Tourism was set
showing the distinctive leisure lifestyle of motorcyclists. It is more inclusive than just
motorcycle tourists, because it is re?ective of the subcultural biker lifestyle.
Stream One/Sub-Stream One: beginnings of consumer experience research
When studying Harley Davidson riders, Schouten and McAlexandar (1995) found that ?ow –
losing oneself in space and time (Csikszentmihaly, 1990) applied, concluding that
PAGE 94
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
commitment to a total biker lifestyle may give way to a psycho-spiritual experience that can
be magical. Using Arnould and Price’s (1993) study on the hedonic experiences of river
rafters proved useful to Schouten and McAlexandar (1995) showing that extraordinary
experience with ?ow may require peak performance triggering high levels of emotional
intensity. This experience includes ‘‘the merging of action and awareness, attention or clear
focus, personal integration, personal control, awareness of power, joy and valuing and a
spontaneous (uninhibited) letting-be of process’’ (Arnould and Price, 1993, p. 25). Arnould
and Price (1993) focused on the hedonic and symbolic aspects of experience to measure
tourist satisfaction. Themes of personal growth, self-renewal, ‘‘communitas,’’ and harmony
with nature emerged, and, indeed, that perspective was applied by Schouten and
McAlexandar (1995) who found that motorcycle riding can be an otherworldly experience
with elements of spirituality. Further, a motorcycle is symbolic of certain ideals, attitudes,
values, and modes of behavior (Austin and Gagne, 2010). Ritchie and Hudson (2009)
included these early studies on ?ow and hedonic experiences.
In studying BMW motorcycle riders, Austin and Gagne (2010) include Stebbins’s ‘‘Serious
Leisure’’ (2001), when a community of choice forms while engaging in an activity described
as profound that requires substantial skill, knowledge, or experience, or a combination
thereof. Austin and Gagne (2010) include Lyng’s (2005) theory of ‘‘Edgework’’ that describes
the intense sense of community that people can ?nd when exploring the edges of risk-taking
that then forms a boundary distinction.
The current study offers the following open-end comments on ?ow, serious leisure, and
edgework that typify respondent sentiment and support elements fromthese earlier studies.
1. Flow:
B ‘‘(L)eisurely backroad travel off the beaten path’’
B ‘‘I prefer the ‘old main roads’ avoiding the interstates when possible and enjoying the
relaxed, laid-back, scenic views and the opportunity to meet people.’’
2. Serious leisure:
B ‘‘There is not a ‘?nal destination’ for our motorcycle trips. It’s about the places we see,
people we meet, and things we do along the way that make it great. The important part
is being in a beautiful part of the country, and enjoying the scenery. But there has to be
SOMETHING to do at the destination, of which there is at most any place you stop.’’
B ‘‘I’ve chosen more scenic roads and destinations over the years rather than just trying
to get ‘‘there.’’
3. Edgework:
B ‘‘Before retirement we would put approximately 20,000-25,000 miles on per a riding
season. Now that we’re retired we almost double that.’’
B ‘‘Another way I have changed is avoiding major roads. I look for the least traveled.
Con?dence that my GPS can get me back on track has led me to take more crazy
roads.’’
Stream One/Sub-Stream Four: the debate over authenticity
While the speci?c works used by Ritchie and Hudson (2009) under this sub-stream were not
used in the studies on the motorcycle subculture, the concept of authenticity was well
explored in studying motorcyclists. Schouten and McAlexandar (1995) ?nd that within the
subculture of consumption there is an identi?able ethos expressing core values accepted by
the group and its subgroups through symbolic consumption. The activity that creates the
subculture may also be identi?ed as symbolic interaction. Austin (2009) points out that riders
tend to depart from a McDonalized life and frequent local ‘‘mom and pop’’ type restaurants
because ‘‘(I)n this group, experience seems to be a primary objective in life and avoiding a
homogenized fast food dining experience is one way to enhance one’s life experiences while
traveling’’ (p. 78).
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 95
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Trauer and Ryan (2005) describe attributes of intimacy using authenticity and a sense of
place or belonging. There is respect for people and place, mutual reciprocity, and that
relationship evolves to place, people, loyalty and repeat visitation, based on memories of
past interactions with people at that place. Austin and Gagne (2008) ?nd that motorcyclists
have a sense of cohesion, solidarity, and collective identity. Ritchie and Hudson (2009) later
use Hayllar and Grif?n’s (2005) work ?nding that the essence of the tourism experience is
de?ned by two major themes: authenticity and intimacy.
Open-end comments supporting authenticity also emerged from the current study.
1. Authenticity:
B ‘‘How much fun I will have and the charity that it supports and the music and the
people.’’
B ‘‘Got a medical ‘second-chance’ Now trying to be part of the Been there-Done that
bunch. Don’t want to be part of the Could-should-wish I woulda crowd.’’
Stream One/Sub-Stream Six: the application of speci?c theories from other ?elds
Ritchie and Hudson (2009) discuss the sub-theories of Affect Control Theory as applied to
tourism by Lee and Shafer (2002), which focuses on ‘‘symbolic interactions, balance theory
and linguistic principles’’ (p. 116). Tourists create a situational self-identity when they
encounter events that are organized in terms consisting of Actor and Act, whereby language
has culturally speci?c affective meanings. Corey (1997) used Drama-based Theory and
symbolic interaction in studying tourismdestination choices of motorcyclists in West Virginia.
Austin (2009) described multiple group behaviors that support the application of symbolic
interaction theory, such as storytelling of adventures and travel experiences. Austin (2009)
found that an informal motorcycle rally setting lends itself to those activities, and Haigh and
Crowther’s (2005) study on voluntary risk-taking of motorcyclists also used storytelling and
Narrative Theory. Supporting comments from the current study are:
1. Affect Control Theory:
B ‘‘Is the establishment I will be staying at welcoming to motorcyclists? Is there some
place to do laundry, wash the bike, ok to check out the bike without being harassed?’’
2. Symbolic Interaction:
B ‘‘Without question, motorcycle camping has become my favorite type of riding. I hardly
ever take ‘‘day trips’’ just to ride around and come home anymore. Me and my riding
companions have a goal to ride and camp somewhere every month, even the hot and
cold months!’’
3. Narrative Theory:
B ‘‘A destination just gives the trip a goal. I once toured the Michigan UP (Upper
Peninsula) just to cross the Mackinaw Bridge. The trip to cross the bridge was almost
3,000m.’’
B ‘‘It’s about the places we see, people we meet, and things we do along the way that
make it great.’’
Intimacy Theory
Ritchie and Hudson (2009) point to Intimacy Theory as applied to the study of ‘‘destination
image and experience of place in tourism’’ (Trauer and Ryan, 2005. p. 116). The four types of
intimacy are: physical, verbal, spiritual, and intellectual. Austin (2009) found that ritual and
boundaries existed at a BMW motorcycle rally in a campground setting which supports the
idea of spiritual elements. Hathaway (2007) suggests that the use of ?eld techniques of
geography (which are helpful in studying motorcycle tourism) and marketing theory,
especially destination branding, are useful in studying tourists. Initial qualitative analysis
shows trends that are consistent with Intimacy Theory demonstrated by the following
comments:
PAGE 96
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
1. Intimacy Theory:
B ‘‘Destination is usually chosen as a meeting spot with fellow riders,’’
B ‘‘Have become less aggressive and look forward to the fellowship of my companions
as much as the actual travel.’’
B ‘‘I used to like going to be (sic) motorcycle events like Sturgis or any event where there
were lots of motorcycles. Now I like the small camp ?re gatherings.’’
Additional applicable tourism theories
Tourist Gaze
Another theory that gives clues to how to understand the motorcycle tourist’s journey is John
Urry’s (2002) concept of the tourist gaze ‘‘directed to features of landscape and townscape
which separate them from everyday experience’’ (p. 4). With aspects that are out of the
ordinary, viewing them involves social patterning that creates a greater sensitivity to visual
elements of landscape or townscape. So seeking places off the beaten path, traveling
winding roads, and visiting friendly one-of-a-kind establishments on a motorcycle journey is
how motorcycle tourists seek out unique, out of the ordinary experiences. Trauer and Ryan
(2005) build on Urry’s (2002) work ?nding sense-scapes extend the ocular vision of the
tourist gaze highlighting a personal (intimate) experience, heightening intensity,
incorporating the ?ve senses, and providing for escape.
A geographic gaze at tourism may be helpful, adding territorial coherence according to
Jansen-Verbeke (2008). For example, Weidenfeld et al. (2010) discuss how visitor
attractions can contribute to the overall appeal of a destination. Visitors tend to visit a
number of attractions in an area, and this also applies to motorcycle tourism. The current
study found that the factor of scene from Drama-based Theory and the geographic gaze
appear to be linked in the minds of motorcycle tourists. Ritchie and Hudson (2009)
discussed O’Dell and Billing’s (2005) collection of papers on the concept of
Experience-Scapes where diverse groups come in contact with each other. Price-Davies
(2011) notes that motorcycles enable riders to ride in a landscape, not through it. Thus, there
is cross-over between those ‘‘scapes’’ and the drama factor of scene. The responses from
the current study exemplify the tourist gaze, as respondents describe their trip.
1. Tourist Gaze:
B ‘‘Any trip over three days is de?nitely about the route.’’
B ‘‘[N]o highways, scenic back roads preferably with lots of curves desired. Light traf?c
conditions.’’
Various other responses included these themes: historically, geographically, architecturally
interesting; things to do (e.g. event/rally, park, museum, tourist attraction), scenic roads that
provide a good quality riding experience (i.e. sweeper roads, good roads with curves,
twisties).
Drama Theory
Corey’s (1997) Drama Theory found actionable elements to promote tourism such as
advertising, architecture, costume, and service ritual. The following dramatic elements – acts
(what activities take place), scene (geography), agents (people involved), agency (the means
to accomplish the activity), and purpose (type of trip) – in?uence route and destination choice
in the present study. The expert researcher classi?ed responses due to understanding the
nuances of different responses, such as distinguishing between fast roads and fastest route.
One speaks to the experience of riding and the other speaks to the time available to ride.
Demand Generators
Samson’s (2008) Demand Generator model of tourism is a marketing theory that categorizes
core and supporting attractors, diversions, and basics of travel. Demand generators are the
key contributors to a visitor’s experience that drive a visitor to a certain destination. He points
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 97
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
out that the balance between the generators varies by the type of visitor. However, getting
there is not included in Samson’s model, which is all about the ?nal stop (the destination).
The present study found that getting there is a large part of the fun for the biker.
For motorcycle tourists, ‘‘diversions’’ may be as important as the ‘‘core’’ ?nal destination.
Samson’s theory does not include the interaction within a community of tourists who form a
subculture of consumption, nor does it include elements of serious leisure. Those limits
forced us to customize the demand generators for motorcyclists to showthat the journey and
diversions have as much or more impact on decision making as the ?nal destination.
Drive tourism
Walker’s (2011) research on motorcycle drive tourism incorporates many of the theories
discussed previously. Her research con?rms data collected by this study. Further, she also
appears constrained by existing theory as she explains the ‘‘goals and motivation’’
(pp. 147-8) and the ‘‘expressive nature of riding’’ (p. 148), the lack of homogeneity yet the
sense of belonging to a ‘‘greater collective of motorcyclists’’ (p. 151), ?nally addressing the
tourism aspect from organized bike tours to events and rallies. Thus, drive tourism is added
to the framework as an additional applicable tourism theory.
Novel theories
The present study found factors of Temporality, Adventure/Fun, Security and Safety,
Climate/Weather, Trip Purposes as a dynamic factor, Cost, Flexibility/Dynamic Change, and
Mapping that emerge as novel theories. Their impact and the methodology to study them
have yet to be determined.
Creating the framework
An experiential framework for studying motorcycle tourism was designed that extended
Samson’s Demand Generators (see Figure 1). The demand generators of motorcycle
tourism modify the core generator of general tourism (destination has the most value) to
show that the destination is only the end result of the more important journey. This
modi?cation is quite important because it offers new opportunities to those who recognize
and understand the value of the motorcycle tourist.
Figure 1 Model for the boundary of dynamic interaction leisure
PAGE 98
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Boundary
The themes discovered in the immediate study support that the contributing theories and
useful theories for studying motorcycle tourists are: ?ow, serious leisure, edgework, affect
control theory, symbolic interaction, intimacy theory, authenticity, narrative theory, the tourist
gaze, drama-based theory, and demand generators. This study developed a framework
(see Figure 1) showing a core theory that modi?es Samson’s, 2008 work and develops
Motorcycle Tourism Demand Generators. There appear to be new novel theories and as the
responses from the current study are further analyzed, other theories may emerge.
This study of motorcycle tourism creates a new core theory of Motorcycle Tourism Demand
Generators that stresses the journey slightly more than the destination and includes
supporting attractors and diversions, basics of travel demands, ‘bikers welcome’, and
fellowship/camaraderie within a new theoretical boundary of Dynamic Interaction Leisure.
Beyond tourismactivities, the elements of trip purpose, interacting with nature and riding in a
changing external environment makes motorcycle riding a dynamic risk-taking activity that
changes moment by moment. The rider interacts with the external environment and relates
with it in an intimate way. However, the rider also interacts with other riders who share a
collective identity and seek authentic experiences. Finally, motorcyclists expect to be
regenerated and spiritually renewed by participating in this recreational leisure.
Researchers in other ?elds may ?nd this useful in studying other leisure lifestyles, as well
as applying it to motorcyclists and the biker lifestyle.
Future research questions
Questions to be resolved by future research are how much impact each motorcycle tourist
demand generator matters to bikers. Are there differences between male and female riders?
What are the impacts of the novel theories? How willing are businesses and governments to
attract motorcyclists? While general theories on tourism are helpful, more research geared
toward understanding the behaviors, motivations, needs, and wants of motorcycle tourists is
needed. Demographic data also needs to be con?rmed. These insights will inform tourism
boards, manufacturers, and other businesses seeking opportunities to market to this
growing group.
Furthermore, because the new leisure boundary of Dynamic Interaction Leisure is in its
formative stages, more research to enrich theoretical understanding should be conducted to
test that boundary and the described leisure lifestyle. This leisure boundary may apply to
other segments of drive tourists such as caravanners and recreational vehicle drivers. Other
leisure lifestyles may include bicyclists, mountain climbers or snow-mobilers.
Limitations
This study is limited to one area and one group of motorcyclists: visitors to a motorcycle
campground in Pennsylvania. One of the researchers is an owner of that campground and a
lifetime motorcyclist. Thus, care was taken to ensure objectivity. Demographic data revealed
that the participants are also considerably older than the general population of motorcycle
riders. The median age of 55 versus 40 in the MICstudy (Motorcycle Industry Council, 2009),
with an average age of 59. With the aging of baby boomers, further study is needed to
determine if this age is representative. Also, the ratio of men (85 percent) to women (15
percent) may not be representative of the population. As previously mentioned, the survey
instrument was untested and needs to be retested.
Concluding remarks and recommendations
Applying Ritchie and Hudson’s (2009) major research streams for consumer/tourist
experiences and cross-referencing congruent studies of the motorcycle subculture offered a
road map for studying motorcycle tourism. The framework added concepts to core,
contributing, and useful theories. For Motorcycle Tourism Demand Generators, this research
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 99
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
reveals that the vast majority of the motorcyclists ?nd the trip more important than the
destination. So, the core generator becomes the trip as much or more so than the
destination. Governments and businesses could build coalitions to entice motorcyclists to a
region by focusing on the demand generators that appeal to this leisure market. If
businesses and residents understand how to make bikers feel welcome, rural areas and
regions stand to generate substantial returns.
Nonetheless, the voices of the respondents seemed sti?ed when they discussed their leisure
lifestyle, behavior, and decision-making especially when discussing how their travel has
changed over the years. Prior research has not identi?ed a theory or framework that accurately
encompasses all of the distinctive characteristics of motorcyclists. Multiple researchers in
various disciplines created a patchwork that failed to serve as a methodology to study this
particular leisure lifestyle. Initially, this study started with identifying unique demand
generators for the motorcycle tourism market. However, the open-ended responses revealed
the failure of the many applicable theories to distinguish this subculture and its lifestyle traits.
While the features were described, the challenge was to create a cohesive framework that
encompassed the past and also encompassed the discoveries in this study. Thus, Dynamic
Interaction Leisure emerged as a new boundary grounded in the conditions of prior theory.
Although this theory arose from the study of motorcyclists, it may be applicable to bicyclists
who face similar tourismconstraints. Future research will be able to use this model for studying
other populations with similar lifestyle characteristics as motorcyclists.
References
Aiken, K. (n.d.), ‘‘Motorcycle Tourism’’, available athttp://kenaiken.hubpages.com/hub/Motorcycle-
Tourism (accessed September 15, 2011).
Arnould, E.J. and Price, L.L. (1993), ‘‘River magic: extraordinary experience and the extended services
encounter’’, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp. 24-45.
Austin, D.M. (2009), ‘‘Ritual and boundary distinction in a recreational community: a case study of
motorcycle rallies and riders’’, Qualitative Sociology Review, Vol. 5 No. 2, pp. 71-93.
Austin, D.M. and Gagne, P. (2008), ‘‘Community in a mobile subculture: the world of the touring
motorcyclist’’, Studies in Symbolic Interaction, Vol. 30, pp. 411-437.
Austin, D.M. and Gagne, P. (2010), ‘‘Playing with the guys: women’s negotiations of gendered leisure
and space’’, International Journal of Motorcycle Studies, Vol. 6 No. 2, available athttp://ijms.nova.edu/
Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.GagneAustin.html (accessed November 11, 2010).
Cater, C. (2013), Motorcycle Tourism in Ceredigion, a report prepared for the Tourism Society of Wales.
Corey, R. (1997), ‘‘A drama-based model of traveler destination choice’’, Journal of Travel & Tourism
Marketing, Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 1-22.
Cox, R. (2011), ‘‘15th Annual Leesburg Bike Fest’’, available at www.bikerhotline.com/eventcoverage/
2011/11leesburgrc/ (accessed November 11, 2011).
Csikszentmihaly, M. (1990), Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience – Steps Toward Enhancing the
Quality of Life, HarperCollins, New York, NY.
Economic Impact of Motorcycle Tourism in Port Dover and Norfolk County (2008), Economic Impact of
Motorcycle Tourism in Port Dover and Norfolk County, Economic Impact of Motorcycle Tourism in Port
Dover and Norfolk County, Ontario, prepared by: Norfolk County – Tourism & Economic Development
Division, August 25, 2008.
GHK Consulting Ltd (2010), The Economic Signi?cance of the UK Motor Cycle Industry: Final Report,
available at: www.mcia.co.uk/downloads_temp/f1723bf9-dfe5-4649-89db-8cefc7d77ec4_Imported_
File.PDF (accessed November 11, 2011).
Haigh, J. and Crowther, G. (2005), ‘‘Interpreting motorcycling through its embodiment in life story
narratives’’, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 21 Nos 5-6, pp. 555-572.
Harley, B. (2010), Sturgis Rally Review, available at: www.motorcycle-usa.com/775/7761/Motorcycle-
Article/2010-Sturgis-Rally-Review-.aspx (accessed November 11, 2011).
PAGE 100
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Hathaway, M. (2007), Anthropology of Tourism, available at: www.indiana.edu/
,wanthro/theory_pages/tourism.htm (accessed December 15, 2010).
Hayllar, B. and Grif?n, T. (2005), ‘‘The precinct experience: a phenomenological approach’’, Tourism
Management, Vol. 26 No. 4, pp. 517-528.
Jansen-Verbeke, M. (2008), ‘‘A geographer’s gaze at tourism’’, Documents d’Ana` lisi Geogra` ?ca, Vol. 15
No. 2, pp. 15-29, available at: www.researchgate.net/publication/28291031_A_geographer’s_gaze_at_
tourism
Lamont, M. (2009), ‘‘Reinventing the wheel: a de?nitional discussion of bicycle tourism’’, Journal of Sport
& Tourism, Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 5-23.
Lee, B. and Shafer, C.S. (2002), ‘‘The dynamic nature of leisure experience: an application of affect
control theory’’, Journal of Leisure Research, Vol. 34 No. 3, pp. 290-311.
Morris, C. (2009), Motorcycle Trends in the United States, available at: www.bts.gov/publications/special_
reports_and_issue_briefs/special_report/2009_05_14/html/entire.html (accessed October 20, 2011).
Motorcycle Industry Council (2009), ‘‘Motorcycling in America goes mainstream – says 2008 Motorcycle
Industry Council owner survey’’, available at: www.mic.org/news051809.cfm(accessed13 November 2011).
O’Dell, T. (2005), ‘‘Experiencescapes: blurring borders and testing connections’’, in O’Dell, T. and
Billing, P. (Eds), Experiencescapes: Tourism, Culture, and Economy, Copenhagen Business School
Press, Copenhagen, pp. 11-34.
Price-Davies, E. (2011), ‘‘Adventure motorcycling: the tourist gaze’’, International Journal of Motorcycle
Studies, Vol. 7 No. 1, available at:http://ijms.nova.edu/Spring2011/IJMS_Artcl.PriceDavies.html
(accessed January 12, 2013).
Ritchie, J.R.B. and Hudson, S. (2009), ‘‘Understanding and meeting the challenges of consumer/tourist
experience research’’, International Journal of Tourism Research, Vol. 11, pp. 111-126.
Samson, P. (2008), ‘‘Tourismdemand generators’’, paper presented at Ottawa Valley Tourist Association
(OVTA) AGM and Conference, available at: www.enterpriserenfrewcounty.com/user?les/?le/tourism_
demand_generators_paul_samson.pdf (accessed November 8, 2011).
Schouten, J. and McAlexandar, J. (1995), ‘‘Subcultures of consumption: an ethnography of the new
bikers’’, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 43-61.
Stebbins, R. (2001), ‘‘Leisure studies’’, Society, Vol. 38 No. 4, pp. 53-57.
Swanson, R.A. (2007), ‘‘Theory framework for applied disciplines: boundaries, contributing, core, useful,
novel, and irrelevant components’’, Human Resource Development Review, Vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 321-339,
available at:http://richardswanson.com/pdf_?les/Swanson,%20R.A.%20(2007).%20Theory%
20framework%20for%20applied%20disciplines.PDF (accessed January 12, 2012).
Sykes, D. and Kelly, K. (2012), ‘‘A road map for studying motorcycle tourism: impacts and
opportunities’’, paper presented at International Conference on Tourism and Events: Opportunities,
Impacts and Change, Ulster Business School Belfast, University of Ulster, Belfast.
The Motorcycle Touring Market (n.d.), Emerging Markets Bulletin, Tourism Research Services, Nova
Scotia, available at: www.gov.ns.ca/econ/tourism/docs/Emerging%20Market%20Report_Motorcycle.
pdf (accessed November 8, 2011).
Trauer, B. and Ryan, C. (2005), ‘‘Destination image, romance and place experience – an application of
intimacy theory in tourism’’, Tourism Management, Vol. 26 No. 4, pp. 481-491.
The Strategic Tourism Development and Marketing Partnership for Northern Ontario (2006),
Understanding and Attracting the On-road Motorcycle Tourism Market to Northern Ontario,
The Tourism Company/Forrest Marketing þ Communication.
Urry, J. (2002), The Tourist Gaze, 2nd ed., Sage Publications, London.
Walker, L. (2011), ‘‘Tourism and leisure motorcycle riding’’, in Prideaux, B. and Carson, D. (Eds), Drive
Tourism: Trends and Emerging Markets, Routledge, New York, NY, pp. 146-158.
Weidenfeld, A., Butler, R. and Williams, A. (2010), ‘‘Clustering and compatibility between tourism
attractions’’, International Journal of Tourism Research, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 1-16.
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 101
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Further reading
History of Bike Week (2011), ‘‘History of Bike Week’’, available at: www.daytonachamber.com/bikeweek/
bwhistry.htm (accessed November 11, 2011).
MacInnis, D. (2011), ‘‘A framework for conceptual contributions in marketing’’, Journal of Marketing,
Vol. 75 No. 4, pp. 136-154.
Motorcycle Tourism Strategy 2013-2016 (2013), ‘‘Tourism Victoria’’, available at: www.tourism.vic.gov.
au/images/stories/TV_Motocycle-Tourism-Strategy.pdf (accessed 4 October 2013).
Rodney (2011), ‘‘Thunder in the valley’’, Motorcycle Rallies and Events blog [blog], available at: www.
mcrally?nder.com/thunder-in-the-valley.php (accessed November 11, 2011).
Rural TourismBusiness Opportunities – Motorcycle Tourism (n.d), Rural Tourism Business Opportunities
– Motorcycle Tourism, available at:http://umaine.edu/tourism/rural-tourism-opportunities/motorcycle-
tourism/ (September 5, 2011).
Ryan, C. (1995), The Tourist Experience: A New Introduction, Cassell, London.
Stebbins, R. (2011), ‘‘Leisure studies: the road ahead’’, World Leisure Journal, Vol. 53 No. 1, pp. 3-10.
Thackeray, L. (2009), ‘‘Motorcycle tourism appears on rise’’, Billings Gazette, available at: http://
missoulian.com/article_cb917574-c02c-11de-93fe-001cc4c002e0.html (accessed November 8, 2011).
About the authors
Diane M. Sykes teaches at Kaplan University and Allied American University in the ?elds of
Hospitality/Tourism, Marketing, and Business. Her research interests are tourism –
especially motorcycle tourism, niche marketing and marketing to subcultures. Diane works
as an Assistant Vice President of Trust Services at a small bank in central Pennsylvania and
manages Marketing for the department. She is Vice President of Steel Steeds Motorcycle
Campground. She obtained her MBA in Marketing at Capella University. She earned her BS
in Organizational Management at Covenant College, GA and she earned her AAS in
Paralegal Studies at Cleveland State Community College, TN.
Kathryn G. Kelly teaches mathematics and qualitative and quantitative research methods at
Kaplan and other online universities. She has worked in the research ?eld for over 30 years,
serving as a marketing research executive in Fortune 500 companies and as President of her
own ?rm, Market Pulse. Kathryn earned a PhD from Claremont Graduate University’s Peter
F. Drucker Center for Executive Management and a Master’s Degree in Math and an MBA
from the University of Louisville.
PAGE 102
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected]
Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
doc_924615740.pdf
Serious leisure and tourism experiences are important to the motorcycle subculture and form
the basis for one subculture of consumption. This paper aims to further the understanding of motorcycle
tourism demand generators so that a brand experience can be developed to appeal to this subculture.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Motorcycle tourism demand generators and dynamic interaction leisure
Diane M. Sykes Kathryn G. Kelly
Article information:
To cite this document:
Diane M. Sykes Kathryn G. Kelly , (2014),"Motorcycle tourism demand generators and dynamic interaction leisure", International J ournal of
Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 8 Iss 1 pp. 92 - 102
Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJ CTHR-05-2013-0035
Downloaded on: 24 January 2016, At: 22:24 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 42 other documents.
To copy this document: [email protected]
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 499 times since 2014*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
Salmi Mohd Isa, Lizana Ramli, (2014),"Factors influencing tourist visitation in marine tourism: lessons learned from FRI Aquarium
Penang, Malaysia", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 8 Iss 1 pp. 103-117http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/
IJ CTHR-04-2013-0016
J uergen Gnoth, Xavier Matteucci, (2014),"A phenomenological view of the behavioural tourism research literature", International J ournal of
Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 8 Iss 1 pp. 3-21http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJ CTHR-01-2014-0005
Lan-Lan Chang, Kenneth F. Backman, Yu Chih Huang, (2014),"Creative tourism: a preliminary examination of creative tourists’ motivation,
experience, perceived value and revisit intention", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 8 Iss 4 pp.
401-419http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJ CTHR-04-2014-0032
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:115632 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service information about
how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/
authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of more than
290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional
customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and
also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Motorcycle tourism demand generators
and dynamic interaction leisure
Diane M. Sykes and Kathryn G. Kelly
Abstract
Purpose – Serious leisure and tourismexperiences are important to the motorcycle subculture and form
the basis for one subculture of consumption. This paper aims to further the understanding of motorcycle
tourism demand generators so that a brand experience can be developed to appeal to this subculture.
Design/methodology/approach – A holistic approach was used to examine the open-end responses
from motorcycle tourist survey data to discover emergent trends in motorcycle tourism and compare
them to existing leisure and experiential tourism theories.
Findings – Analysis identi?ed the applicability and limitations of demand generator theory, experiential
tourism, the tourist gaze, drama-based theory and serious leisure theory when studying motorcycle
tourism. A modi?ed conceptual framework (Motorcycle Tourism Demand Generators) using core
theories, contributing theories and useful theories emerged. Studying motorcycle tourism led to
promulgating a new boundary, Dynamic Interaction Leisure, to study the motorcycle leisure lifestyle.
Research limitations/implications – Survey data were obtained from a small sample. The
questionnaire was untested. Thus, results need further testing to be generalized. Respondents may
be older than the general population of motorcycle riders. One researcher was a participant so care was
taken to ensure objectivity.
Practical implications – Tourism bureaus and businesses can better understand motorcycle tourists’
needs and facilitate creating brand experiences to improve motorcyclist’s enjoyment. Promotional tools
can be developed to encourage rural tourism that will generate substantial returns.
Originality/value – The paper modi?es existing theories that study experiential tourism ?tting them to
motorcycle tourismsuggesting a newmodel and boundary, Dynamic Interaction Leisure, to examine the
sub-cultural motorcycle leisure lifestyle.
Keywords Tourism, Dynamic interaction leisure, Motorcycle drive tourism, Motorcycle leisure lifestyle,
Motorcycle subculture, Motorcycle tourism demand generators
Paper type Conceptual paper
Importance of the market
Motorcycle tourism is a large and growing market. Ken Aiken (2011), a motorcycle touring
consultant, claims that motorcycle tourism is the fastest growing segment in the tourism
industry in the US There are numerous motorcycle events in the US that appeal to riders and
their economic impact is tremendous. The Sturgis Rally may be the best known, drawing
600,000, but other notable national motorcycle events in the US also boast attendees in the
hundreds of thousands: Daytona Races [Spring] (550,000) and Biketoberfest [Fall]
(120,000); Laconia Motorcycle Week (400,000); BBB rally (400,000); and Myrtle Beach Bike
Week (300,000). However, regional events also attract signi?cant numbers, for example:
Thunder in the Valley (170,000) and Leesburg Bikefest (300,000) (Aiken, 2011; Cox, 2011;
Harley, 2010), but there are many others. These rallies last from two to ten days and
spending in the sponsoring areas is substantial. The importance of motorcycle tourism
expands beyond the US. Studies in the UK (GHK Consulting Ltd, 2010), Canada (Economic
PAGE 92
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014, pp. 92-102, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/IJCTHR-05-2013-0035
Diane M. Sykes is a
Professor, Department of
Business – Hospitality,
Kaplan University, Fort
Lauderdale, Florida, USA.
Kathryn G. Kelly is at the
Department of Business,
Kaplan University, Fort
Lauderdale, Florida, USA.
Received 25 May 2013
Revised 28 October 2013
Accepted 29 November 2013
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Impact, 2008; The Strategic Tourism Development and Marketing Partnership for Northern
Ontario, 2006), Nova Scotia (Nova Scotia Tourism Research Services: The Motorcycle
Touring Market, 2011), and Wales (Cater, 2013) support the growth in motorcycle tourism.
Lack of existing research leads to exploring multiple disciplines
Existing research on motorcycle tourismis limited, restrictive, and fragmented, applying only
to speci?c geographic areas or demographics or user groups (e.g. Harley Davidson riders,
Sturgis attendees, BMW riders, West Virginia visitors, BBB attendees). Thus, research
completed to date tends to be localized or non-representative and non-generalizable.
Therefore, this research has extrapolated from multiple research streams, adopted a
multi-disciplinary approach, and synthesizing various literatures to develop a framework for
studying this population.
De?nition of motorcycle tourism
An operative de?nition of motorcycle tourists was needed to distinguish them from general
interest tourists. This study originates the following de?nition of motorcycle tourismto include
these three elements:
1. Motorcycle Tourism involves trips away from home whose main purpose is vacation,
leisure, entertainment, or recreation.
B The trip may include participation in sporting events or attendance at events
organized for commercial gain and/or charity, or independently organized
motorcycling (adapted from Lamont’s (2009) de?nition of bicycle tourism in Australia).
2. The tourist may be passive or active (e.g. a motorcycle passenger or the driver), and the
trip can be a day trip or involve overnight stay. Touring via a motorcycle that is trailered
from place to place also quali?es. Daily transportation does not qualify.
3. The motorcycle is, borrowing from the de?nition of Craig Morris (2009), a ‘‘two- or
three-wheel powered vehicle designed for on-road, off-road, or dual-purpose (on and
off-road) use.’’ Motorcycles de?ned for motorcycle tourism include the three major
categories of motorcycles used for touring – cruisers, touring, and sport-tourer
motorcycles. Off-road motorcycles are speci?cally excluded from motorcycle tourism.
Using this de?nition, it is possible to research questions on motorcycle tourism and possibly
event construction. Note that participants were permitted to self-de?ne as motorcycle
tourists.
Methodology
The researchers did not ?nd any existing surveys on motorcycle tourism. Thus, in order to
establish face validity and content validity, the survey instrument was submitted to ?ve
independent experts in the ?elds of business, marketing, and tourism to review. However,
because there are no other survey instruments to use to establish external validity or
reliability, the researchers recognize the dif?culty of extrapolating the data to a more general
population until other researchers conduct similar studies. Cater’s (2013) research in Wales
(157 surveys collected) was published after the current study was conducted, but the results
of both studies are very similar, thus, suggesting that external validity exists.
One of the researchers as a long time motorcyclist provides subject matter expertise and is a
partner at Steel Steeds Motorcycle Campground. Austin (2009) and Austin and Gagne
(2008) utilized this ‘‘opportunistic researcher’’ role, whereby the researcher ‘‘examines
people and social setting in which she/he is already a member’’ (pp. 73-4). Schouten and
McAlexandar (1995) were ‘‘convert researchers’’ who converted their social world to that of
motorcyclists. They ‘‘gained insights and perspectives that would have been dif?cult if not
impossible through less sustained involvement’’ (1996. p. 44). As a participant observer,
Diane Sykes took care to remain objective in observations. Having a subject matter expert as
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 93
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
one of the researchers was valuable in that the questions were targeted to the motorcycle
lifestyle and it was easier to interpret slang terms and idioms used by riders. The study
results were analyzed by the second researcher, who is not a motorcyclist, to ensure
independence and neutrality. Both researchers evaluated the results for the report.
A link to a self-administered questionnaire conducted through Survey Monkey was emailed
to a convenience sample of 651 guests of Steel Steeds Motorcycle Campground,
Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, USA. Results were collected for 4 weeks and 127 people
responded. Participation was not limited to a speci?c brand of bike, and the respondents
were permitted to forward the survey on to other motorcycle tourists.
This paper focuses only on the 11 open-ended questions because a story seemed to
emerge fromthe holistic viewof those responses. However, some quantitative data provided
clarity. Eleven questions solicited qualitative, open-ended responses seeks to understand
the unique behaviors, motivations, needs, and wants of the motorcycle tourist. Three primary
open-end questions covered the factors important in choosing both a ?nal destination and a
route, and howmotorcycling behavior has changed over the years. Response rates for these
questions were 91-92 percent. Of the remaining four open-end questions, about a fourth (28
percent) noted problems they would like to change, and a third (35 percent) volunteered
other important items they wished to share. The remaining four questions called for
open-ended comments at the conclusion of closed end questions.
Initially, drama theory seemed to provide a method of classifying these open-end responses
according to acts, scene, agents, agency, and purpose (Corey, 1997). Using the framework
previously devised appeared to be suf?cient for analysis and many responses were coded
for those elements. However, those restrictions were insuf?cient to explain the experiential
and behavioral patterns that emerged from the data. Thus, the analysis turned to the
elements fromthe initial framework to complete the analysis. The assumption that the original
framework would suf?ce did not stand and thus, more research was conducted that lead to
?nding Swanson’s (2007) Theory Framework for Applied Disciplines from the ?eld of Human
Resources.
Process of devising the framework
With so few studies on motorcycle tourism and, thus, few theories or methodologies, using
Ritchie and Hudson’s (2009) studies of six major research streams for consumer/tourist
experiences offered a road map for studying motorcycle tourism (Sykes and Kelly, 2012).
Then, existing studies on motorcycle subculture were compared to works included in Ritchie
and Hudson (2009) to delineate congruent theories. Finally, other studies on
tourist/consumer behavior and motivation were consulted. Many of the theories
overlapped. In some cases, additional theories needed to be added to explain the
congruent and emerging behavior patterns. As the open-ended responses from this study
were analyzed, overarching themes emerged to plot a new thematic course to study
motorcycle tourism. After attempting to use the revised framework, the researchers
expanded their view toward other ?elds and found that Swanson (2007) developed a Theory
Framework for Applied Disciplines using six theory components: boundary, contributing
theories, core theories, useful theories, novel theories, and irrelevant theories. That
framework was designed to function at multiple levels, establish boundaries and consider
practitioner perspectives (among other things). This paper used Swanson’s framework as an
exemplar for our theoretical framework to apply to motorcycle tourism and selected
contributing theories, core theories, and useful theories. In doing so, novel theories and a
new boundary emerged. Therefore, a new boundary of Dynamic Interaction Tourism was set
showing the distinctive leisure lifestyle of motorcyclists. It is more inclusive than just
motorcycle tourists, because it is re?ective of the subcultural biker lifestyle.
Stream One/Sub-Stream One: beginnings of consumer experience research
When studying Harley Davidson riders, Schouten and McAlexandar (1995) found that ?ow –
losing oneself in space and time (Csikszentmihaly, 1990) applied, concluding that
PAGE 94
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
commitment to a total biker lifestyle may give way to a psycho-spiritual experience that can
be magical. Using Arnould and Price’s (1993) study on the hedonic experiences of river
rafters proved useful to Schouten and McAlexandar (1995) showing that extraordinary
experience with ?ow may require peak performance triggering high levels of emotional
intensity. This experience includes ‘‘the merging of action and awareness, attention or clear
focus, personal integration, personal control, awareness of power, joy and valuing and a
spontaneous (uninhibited) letting-be of process’’ (Arnould and Price, 1993, p. 25). Arnould
and Price (1993) focused on the hedonic and symbolic aspects of experience to measure
tourist satisfaction. Themes of personal growth, self-renewal, ‘‘communitas,’’ and harmony
with nature emerged, and, indeed, that perspective was applied by Schouten and
McAlexandar (1995) who found that motorcycle riding can be an otherworldly experience
with elements of spirituality. Further, a motorcycle is symbolic of certain ideals, attitudes,
values, and modes of behavior (Austin and Gagne, 2010). Ritchie and Hudson (2009)
included these early studies on ?ow and hedonic experiences.
In studying BMW motorcycle riders, Austin and Gagne (2010) include Stebbins’s ‘‘Serious
Leisure’’ (2001), when a community of choice forms while engaging in an activity described
as profound that requires substantial skill, knowledge, or experience, or a combination
thereof. Austin and Gagne (2010) include Lyng’s (2005) theory of ‘‘Edgework’’ that describes
the intense sense of community that people can ?nd when exploring the edges of risk-taking
that then forms a boundary distinction.
The current study offers the following open-end comments on ?ow, serious leisure, and
edgework that typify respondent sentiment and support elements fromthese earlier studies.
1. Flow:
B ‘‘(L)eisurely backroad travel off the beaten path’’
B ‘‘I prefer the ‘old main roads’ avoiding the interstates when possible and enjoying the
relaxed, laid-back, scenic views and the opportunity to meet people.’’
2. Serious leisure:
B ‘‘There is not a ‘?nal destination’ for our motorcycle trips. It’s about the places we see,
people we meet, and things we do along the way that make it great. The important part
is being in a beautiful part of the country, and enjoying the scenery. But there has to be
SOMETHING to do at the destination, of which there is at most any place you stop.’’
B ‘‘I’ve chosen more scenic roads and destinations over the years rather than just trying
to get ‘‘there.’’
3. Edgework:
B ‘‘Before retirement we would put approximately 20,000-25,000 miles on per a riding
season. Now that we’re retired we almost double that.’’
B ‘‘Another way I have changed is avoiding major roads. I look for the least traveled.
Con?dence that my GPS can get me back on track has led me to take more crazy
roads.’’
Stream One/Sub-Stream Four: the debate over authenticity
While the speci?c works used by Ritchie and Hudson (2009) under this sub-stream were not
used in the studies on the motorcycle subculture, the concept of authenticity was well
explored in studying motorcyclists. Schouten and McAlexandar (1995) ?nd that within the
subculture of consumption there is an identi?able ethos expressing core values accepted by
the group and its subgroups through symbolic consumption. The activity that creates the
subculture may also be identi?ed as symbolic interaction. Austin (2009) points out that riders
tend to depart from a McDonalized life and frequent local ‘‘mom and pop’’ type restaurants
because ‘‘(I)n this group, experience seems to be a primary objective in life and avoiding a
homogenized fast food dining experience is one way to enhance one’s life experiences while
traveling’’ (p. 78).
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 95
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Trauer and Ryan (2005) describe attributes of intimacy using authenticity and a sense of
place or belonging. There is respect for people and place, mutual reciprocity, and that
relationship evolves to place, people, loyalty and repeat visitation, based on memories of
past interactions with people at that place. Austin and Gagne (2008) ?nd that motorcyclists
have a sense of cohesion, solidarity, and collective identity. Ritchie and Hudson (2009) later
use Hayllar and Grif?n’s (2005) work ?nding that the essence of the tourism experience is
de?ned by two major themes: authenticity and intimacy.
Open-end comments supporting authenticity also emerged from the current study.
1. Authenticity:
B ‘‘How much fun I will have and the charity that it supports and the music and the
people.’’
B ‘‘Got a medical ‘second-chance’ Now trying to be part of the Been there-Done that
bunch. Don’t want to be part of the Could-should-wish I woulda crowd.’’
Stream One/Sub-Stream Six: the application of speci?c theories from other ?elds
Ritchie and Hudson (2009) discuss the sub-theories of Affect Control Theory as applied to
tourism by Lee and Shafer (2002), which focuses on ‘‘symbolic interactions, balance theory
and linguistic principles’’ (p. 116). Tourists create a situational self-identity when they
encounter events that are organized in terms consisting of Actor and Act, whereby language
has culturally speci?c affective meanings. Corey (1997) used Drama-based Theory and
symbolic interaction in studying tourismdestination choices of motorcyclists in West Virginia.
Austin (2009) described multiple group behaviors that support the application of symbolic
interaction theory, such as storytelling of adventures and travel experiences. Austin (2009)
found that an informal motorcycle rally setting lends itself to those activities, and Haigh and
Crowther’s (2005) study on voluntary risk-taking of motorcyclists also used storytelling and
Narrative Theory. Supporting comments from the current study are:
1. Affect Control Theory:
B ‘‘Is the establishment I will be staying at welcoming to motorcyclists? Is there some
place to do laundry, wash the bike, ok to check out the bike without being harassed?’’
2. Symbolic Interaction:
B ‘‘Without question, motorcycle camping has become my favorite type of riding. I hardly
ever take ‘‘day trips’’ just to ride around and come home anymore. Me and my riding
companions have a goal to ride and camp somewhere every month, even the hot and
cold months!’’
3. Narrative Theory:
B ‘‘A destination just gives the trip a goal. I once toured the Michigan UP (Upper
Peninsula) just to cross the Mackinaw Bridge. The trip to cross the bridge was almost
3,000m.’’
B ‘‘It’s about the places we see, people we meet, and things we do along the way that
make it great.’’
Intimacy Theory
Ritchie and Hudson (2009) point to Intimacy Theory as applied to the study of ‘‘destination
image and experience of place in tourism’’ (Trauer and Ryan, 2005. p. 116). The four types of
intimacy are: physical, verbal, spiritual, and intellectual. Austin (2009) found that ritual and
boundaries existed at a BMW motorcycle rally in a campground setting which supports the
idea of spiritual elements. Hathaway (2007) suggests that the use of ?eld techniques of
geography (which are helpful in studying motorcycle tourism) and marketing theory,
especially destination branding, are useful in studying tourists. Initial qualitative analysis
shows trends that are consistent with Intimacy Theory demonstrated by the following
comments:
PAGE 96
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
1. Intimacy Theory:
B ‘‘Destination is usually chosen as a meeting spot with fellow riders,’’
B ‘‘Have become less aggressive and look forward to the fellowship of my companions
as much as the actual travel.’’
B ‘‘I used to like going to be (sic) motorcycle events like Sturgis or any event where there
were lots of motorcycles. Now I like the small camp ?re gatherings.’’
Additional applicable tourism theories
Tourist Gaze
Another theory that gives clues to how to understand the motorcycle tourist’s journey is John
Urry’s (2002) concept of the tourist gaze ‘‘directed to features of landscape and townscape
which separate them from everyday experience’’ (p. 4). With aspects that are out of the
ordinary, viewing them involves social patterning that creates a greater sensitivity to visual
elements of landscape or townscape. So seeking places off the beaten path, traveling
winding roads, and visiting friendly one-of-a-kind establishments on a motorcycle journey is
how motorcycle tourists seek out unique, out of the ordinary experiences. Trauer and Ryan
(2005) build on Urry’s (2002) work ?nding sense-scapes extend the ocular vision of the
tourist gaze highlighting a personal (intimate) experience, heightening intensity,
incorporating the ?ve senses, and providing for escape.
A geographic gaze at tourism may be helpful, adding territorial coherence according to
Jansen-Verbeke (2008). For example, Weidenfeld et al. (2010) discuss how visitor
attractions can contribute to the overall appeal of a destination. Visitors tend to visit a
number of attractions in an area, and this also applies to motorcycle tourism. The current
study found that the factor of scene from Drama-based Theory and the geographic gaze
appear to be linked in the minds of motorcycle tourists. Ritchie and Hudson (2009)
discussed O’Dell and Billing’s (2005) collection of papers on the concept of
Experience-Scapes where diverse groups come in contact with each other. Price-Davies
(2011) notes that motorcycles enable riders to ride in a landscape, not through it. Thus, there
is cross-over between those ‘‘scapes’’ and the drama factor of scene. The responses from
the current study exemplify the tourist gaze, as respondents describe their trip.
1. Tourist Gaze:
B ‘‘Any trip over three days is de?nitely about the route.’’
B ‘‘[N]o highways, scenic back roads preferably with lots of curves desired. Light traf?c
conditions.’’
Various other responses included these themes: historically, geographically, architecturally
interesting; things to do (e.g. event/rally, park, museum, tourist attraction), scenic roads that
provide a good quality riding experience (i.e. sweeper roads, good roads with curves,
twisties).
Drama Theory
Corey’s (1997) Drama Theory found actionable elements to promote tourism such as
advertising, architecture, costume, and service ritual. The following dramatic elements – acts
(what activities take place), scene (geography), agents (people involved), agency (the means
to accomplish the activity), and purpose (type of trip) – in?uence route and destination choice
in the present study. The expert researcher classi?ed responses due to understanding the
nuances of different responses, such as distinguishing between fast roads and fastest route.
One speaks to the experience of riding and the other speaks to the time available to ride.
Demand Generators
Samson’s (2008) Demand Generator model of tourism is a marketing theory that categorizes
core and supporting attractors, diversions, and basics of travel. Demand generators are the
key contributors to a visitor’s experience that drive a visitor to a certain destination. He points
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 97
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
out that the balance between the generators varies by the type of visitor. However, getting
there is not included in Samson’s model, which is all about the ?nal stop (the destination).
The present study found that getting there is a large part of the fun for the biker.
For motorcycle tourists, ‘‘diversions’’ may be as important as the ‘‘core’’ ?nal destination.
Samson’s theory does not include the interaction within a community of tourists who form a
subculture of consumption, nor does it include elements of serious leisure. Those limits
forced us to customize the demand generators for motorcyclists to showthat the journey and
diversions have as much or more impact on decision making as the ?nal destination.
Drive tourism
Walker’s (2011) research on motorcycle drive tourism incorporates many of the theories
discussed previously. Her research con?rms data collected by this study. Further, she also
appears constrained by existing theory as she explains the ‘‘goals and motivation’’
(pp. 147-8) and the ‘‘expressive nature of riding’’ (p. 148), the lack of homogeneity yet the
sense of belonging to a ‘‘greater collective of motorcyclists’’ (p. 151), ?nally addressing the
tourism aspect from organized bike tours to events and rallies. Thus, drive tourism is added
to the framework as an additional applicable tourism theory.
Novel theories
The present study found factors of Temporality, Adventure/Fun, Security and Safety,
Climate/Weather, Trip Purposes as a dynamic factor, Cost, Flexibility/Dynamic Change, and
Mapping that emerge as novel theories. Their impact and the methodology to study them
have yet to be determined.
Creating the framework
An experiential framework for studying motorcycle tourism was designed that extended
Samson’s Demand Generators (see Figure 1). The demand generators of motorcycle
tourism modify the core generator of general tourism (destination has the most value) to
show that the destination is only the end result of the more important journey. This
modi?cation is quite important because it offers new opportunities to those who recognize
and understand the value of the motorcycle tourist.
Figure 1 Model for the boundary of dynamic interaction leisure
PAGE 98
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Boundary
The themes discovered in the immediate study support that the contributing theories and
useful theories for studying motorcycle tourists are: ?ow, serious leisure, edgework, affect
control theory, symbolic interaction, intimacy theory, authenticity, narrative theory, the tourist
gaze, drama-based theory, and demand generators. This study developed a framework
(see Figure 1) showing a core theory that modi?es Samson’s, 2008 work and develops
Motorcycle Tourism Demand Generators. There appear to be new novel theories and as the
responses from the current study are further analyzed, other theories may emerge.
This study of motorcycle tourism creates a new core theory of Motorcycle Tourism Demand
Generators that stresses the journey slightly more than the destination and includes
supporting attractors and diversions, basics of travel demands, ‘bikers welcome’, and
fellowship/camaraderie within a new theoretical boundary of Dynamic Interaction Leisure.
Beyond tourismactivities, the elements of trip purpose, interacting with nature and riding in a
changing external environment makes motorcycle riding a dynamic risk-taking activity that
changes moment by moment. The rider interacts with the external environment and relates
with it in an intimate way. However, the rider also interacts with other riders who share a
collective identity and seek authentic experiences. Finally, motorcyclists expect to be
regenerated and spiritually renewed by participating in this recreational leisure.
Researchers in other ?elds may ?nd this useful in studying other leisure lifestyles, as well
as applying it to motorcyclists and the biker lifestyle.
Future research questions
Questions to be resolved by future research are how much impact each motorcycle tourist
demand generator matters to bikers. Are there differences between male and female riders?
What are the impacts of the novel theories? How willing are businesses and governments to
attract motorcyclists? While general theories on tourism are helpful, more research geared
toward understanding the behaviors, motivations, needs, and wants of motorcycle tourists is
needed. Demographic data also needs to be con?rmed. These insights will inform tourism
boards, manufacturers, and other businesses seeking opportunities to market to this
growing group.
Furthermore, because the new leisure boundary of Dynamic Interaction Leisure is in its
formative stages, more research to enrich theoretical understanding should be conducted to
test that boundary and the described leisure lifestyle. This leisure boundary may apply to
other segments of drive tourists such as caravanners and recreational vehicle drivers. Other
leisure lifestyles may include bicyclists, mountain climbers or snow-mobilers.
Limitations
This study is limited to one area and one group of motorcyclists: visitors to a motorcycle
campground in Pennsylvania. One of the researchers is an owner of that campground and a
lifetime motorcyclist. Thus, care was taken to ensure objectivity. Demographic data revealed
that the participants are also considerably older than the general population of motorcycle
riders. The median age of 55 versus 40 in the MICstudy (Motorcycle Industry Council, 2009),
with an average age of 59. With the aging of baby boomers, further study is needed to
determine if this age is representative. Also, the ratio of men (85 percent) to women (15
percent) may not be representative of the population. As previously mentioned, the survey
instrument was untested and needs to be retested.
Concluding remarks and recommendations
Applying Ritchie and Hudson’s (2009) major research streams for consumer/tourist
experiences and cross-referencing congruent studies of the motorcycle subculture offered a
road map for studying motorcycle tourism. The framework added concepts to core,
contributing, and useful theories. For Motorcycle Tourism Demand Generators, this research
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 99
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
reveals that the vast majority of the motorcyclists ?nd the trip more important than the
destination. So, the core generator becomes the trip as much or more so than the
destination. Governments and businesses could build coalitions to entice motorcyclists to a
region by focusing on the demand generators that appeal to this leisure market. If
businesses and residents understand how to make bikers feel welcome, rural areas and
regions stand to generate substantial returns.
Nonetheless, the voices of the respondents seemed sti?ed when they discussed their leisure
lifestyle, behavior, and decision-making especially when discussing how their travel has
changed over the years. Prior research has not identi?ed a theory or framework that accurately
encompasses all of the distinctive characteristics of motorcyclists. Multiple researchers in
various disciplines created a patchwork that failed to serve as a methodology to study this
particular leisure lifestyle. Initially, this study started with identifying unique demand
generators for the motorcycle tourism market. However, the open-ended responses revealed
the failure of the many applicable theories to distinguish this subculture and its lifestyle traits.
While the features were described, the challenge was to create a cohesive framework that
encompassed the past and also encompassed the discoveries in this study. Thus, Dynamic
Interaction Leisure emerged as a new boundary grounded in the conditions of prior theory.
Although this theory arose from the study of motorcyclists, it may be applicable to bicyclists
who face similar tourismconstraints. Future research will be able to use this model for studying
other populations with similar lifestyle characteristics as motorcyclists.
References
Aiken, K. (n.d.), ‘‘Motorcycle Tourism’’, available athttp://kenaiken.hubpages.com/hub/Motorcycle-
Tourism (accessed September 15, 2011).
Arnould, E.J. and Price, L.L. (1993), ‘‘River magic: extraordinary experience and the extended services
encounter’’, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp. 24-45.
Austin, D.M. (2009), ‘‘Ritual and boundary distinction in a recreational community: a case study of
motorcycle rallies and riders’’, Qualitative Sociology Review, Vol. 5 No. 2, pp. 71-93.
Austin, D.M. and Gagne, P. (2008), ‘‘Community in a mobile subculture: the world of the touring
motorcyclist’’, Studies in Symbolic Interaction, Vol. 30, pp. 411-437.
Austin, D.M. and Gagne, P. (2010), ‘‘Playing with the guys: women’s negotiations of gendered leisure
and space’’, International Journal of Motorcycle Studies, Vol. 6 No. 2, available athttp://ijms.nova.edu/
Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.GagneAustin.html (accessed November 11, 2010).
Cater, C. (2013), Motorcycle Tourism in Ceredigion, a report prepared for the Tourism Society of Wales.
Corey, R. (1997), ‘‘A drama-based model of traveler destination choice’’, Journal of Travel & Tourism
Marketing, Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 1-22.
Cox, R. (2011), ‘‘15th Annual Leesburg Bike Fest’’, available at www.bikerhotline.com/eventcoverage/
2011/11leesburgrc/ (accessed November 11, 2011).
Csikszentmihaly, M. (1990), Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience – Steps Toward Enhancing the
Quality of Life, HarperCollins, New York, NY.
Economic Impact of Motorcycle Tourism in Port Dover and Norfolk County (2008), Economic Impact of
Motorcycle Tourism in Port Dover and Norfolk County, Economic Impact of Motorcycle Tourism in Port
Dover and Norfolk County, Ontario, prepared by: Norfolk County – Tourism & Economic Development
Division, August 25, 2008.
GHK Consulting Ltd (2010), The Economic Signi?cance of the UK Motor Cycle Industry: Final Report,
available at: www.mcia.co.uk/downloads_temp/f1723bf9-dfe5-4649-89db-8cefc7d77ec4_Imported_
File.PDF (accessed November 11, 2011).
Haigh, J. and Crowther, G. (2005), ‘‘Interpreting motorcycling through its embodiment in life story
narratives’’, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 21 Nos 5-6, pp. 555-572.
Harley, B. (2010), Sturgis Rally Review, available at: www.motorcycle-usa.com/775/7761/Motorcycle-
Article/2010-Sturgis-Rally-Review-.aspx (accessed November 11, 2011).
PAGE 100
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Hathaway, M. (2007), Anthropology of Tourism, available at: www.indiana.edu/
,wanthro/theory_pages/tourism.htm (accessed December 15, 2010).
Hayllar, B. and Grif?n, T. (2005), ‘‘The precinct experience: a phenomenological approach’’, Tourism
Management, Vol. 26 No. 4, pp. 517-528.
Jansen-Verbeke, M. (2008), ‘‘A geographer’s gaze at tourism’’, Documents d’Ana` lisi Geogra` ?ca, Vol. 15
No. 2, pp. 15-29, available at: www.researchgate.net/publication/28291031_A_geographer’s_gaze_at_
tourism
Lamont, M. (2009), ‘‘Reinventing the wheel: a de?nitional discussion of bicycle tourism’’, Journal of Sport
& Tourism, Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 5-23.
Lee, B. and Shafer, C.S. (2002), ‘‘The dynamic nature of leisure experience: an application of affect
control theory’’, Journal of Leisure Research, Vol. 34 No. 3, pp. 290-311.
Morris, C. (2009), Motorcycle Trends in the United States, available at: www.bts.gov/publications/special_
reports_and_issue_briefs/special_report/2009_05_14/html/entire.html (accessed October 20, 2011).
Motorcycle Industry Council (2009), ‘‘Motorcycling in America goes mainstream – says 2008 Motorcycle
Industry Council owner survey’’, available at: www.mic.org/news051809.cfm(accessed13 November 2011).
O’Dell, T. (2005), ‘‘Experiencescapes: blurring borders and testing connections’’, in O’Dell, T. and
Billing, P. (Eds), Experiencescapes: Tourism, Culture, and Economy, Copenhagen Business School
Press, Copenhagen, pp. 11-34.
Price-Davies, E. (2011), ‘‘Adventure motorcycling: the tourist gaze’’, International Journal of Motorcycle
Studies, Vol. 7 No. 1, available at:http://ijms.nova.edu/Spring2011/IJMS_Artcl.PriceDavies.html
(accessed January 12, 2013).
Ritchie, J.R.B. and Hudson, S. (2009), ‘‘Understanding and meeting the challenges of consumer/tourist
experience research’’, International Journal of Tourism Research, Vol. 11, pp. 111-126.
Samson, P. (2008), ‘‘Tourismdemand generators’’, paper presented at Ottawa Valley Tourist Association
(OVTA) AGM and Conference, available at: www.enterpriserenfrewcounty.com/user?les/?le/tourism_
demand_generators_paul_samson.pdf (accessed November 8, 2011).
Schouten, J. and McAlexandar, J. (1995), ‘‘Subcultures of consumption: an ethnography of the new
bikers’’, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 43-61.
Stebbins, R. (2001), ‘‘Leisure studies’’, Society, Vol. 38 No. 4, pp. 53-57.
Swanson, R.A. (2007), ‘‘Theory framework for applied disciplines: boundaries, contributing, core, useful,
novel, and irrelevant components’’, Human Resource Development Review, Vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 321-339,
available at:http://richardswanson.com/pdf_?les/Swanson,%20R.A.%20(2007).%20Theory%
20framework%20for%20applied%20disciplines.PDF (accessed January 12, 2012).
Sykes, D. and Kelly, K. (2012), ‘‘A road map for studying motorcycle tourism: impacts and
opportunities’’, paper presented at International Conference on Tourism and Events: Opportunities,
Impacts and Change, Ulster Business School Belfast, University of Ulster, Belfast.
The Motorcycle Touring Market (n.d.), Emerging Markets Bulletin, Tourism Research Services, Nova
Scotia, available at: www.gov.ns.ca/econ/tourism/docs/Emerging%20Market%20Report_Motorcycle.
pdf (accessed November 8, 2011).
Trauer, B. and Ryan, C. (2005), ‘‘Destination image, romance and place experience – an application of
intimacy theory in tourism’’, Tourism Management, Vol. 26 No. 4, pp. 481-491.
The Strategic Tourism Development and Marketing Partnership for Northern Ontario (2006),
Understanding and Attracting the On-road Motorcycle Tourism Market to Northern Ontario,
The Tourism Company/Forrest Marketing þ Communication.
Urry, J. (2002), The Tourist Gaze, 2nd ed., Sage Publications, London.
Walker, L. (2011), ‘‘Tourism and leisure motorcycle riding’’, in Prideaux, B. and Carson, D. (Eds), Drive
Tourism: Trends and Emerging Markets, Routledge, New York, NY, pp. 146-158.
Weidenfeld, A., Butler, R. and Williams, A. (2010), ‘‘Clustering and compatibility between tourism
attractions’’, International Journal of Tourism Research, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 1-16.
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 101
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Further reading
History of Bike Week (2011), ‘‘History of Bike Week’’, available at: www.daytonachamber.com/bikeweek/
bwhistry.htm (accessed November 11, 2011).
MacInnis, D. (2011), ‘‘A framework for conceptual contributions in marketing’’, Journal of Marketing,
Vol. 75 No. 4, pp. 136-154.
Motorcycle Tourism Strategy 2013-2016 (2013), ‘‘Tourism Victoria’’, available at: www.tourism.vic.gov.
au/images/stories/TV_Motocycle-Tourism-Strategy.pdf (accessed 4 October 2013).
Rodney (2011), ‘‘Thunder in the valley’’, Motorcycle Rallies and Events blog [blog], available at: www.
mcrally?nder.com/thunder-in-the-valley.php (accessed November 11, 2011).
Rural TourismBusiness Opportunities – Motorcycle Tourism (n.d), Rural Tourism Business Opportunities
– Motorcycle Tourism, available at:http://umaine.edu/tourism/rural-tourism-opportunities/motorcycle-
tourism/ (September 5, 2011).
Ryan, C. (1995), The Tourist Experience: A New Introduction, Cassell, London.
Stebbins, R. (2011), ‘‘Leisure studies: the road ahead’’, World Leisure Journal, Vol. 53 No. 1, pp. 3-10.
Thackeray, L. (2009), ‘‘Motorcycle tourism appears on rise’’, Billings Gazette, available at: http://
missoulian.com/article_cb917574-c02c-11de-93fe-001cc4c002e0.html (accessed November 8, 2011).
About the authors
Diane M. Sykes teaches at Kaplan University and Allied American University in the ?elds of
Hospitality/Tourism, Marketing, and Business. Her research interests are tourism –
especially motorcycle tourism, niche marketing and marketing to subcultures. Diane works
as an Assistant Vice President of Trust Services at a small bank in central Pennsylvania and
manages Marketing for the department. She is Vice President of Steel Steeds Motorcycle
Campground. She obtained her MBA in Marketing at Capella University. She earned her BS
in Organizational Management at Covenant College, GA and she earned her AAS in
Paralegal Studies at Cleveland State Community College, TN.
Kathryn G. Kelly teaches mathematics and qualitative and quantitative research methods at
Kaplan and other online universities. She has worked in the research ?eld for over 30 years,
serving as a marketing research executive in Fortune 500 companies and as President of her
own ?rm, Market Pulse. Kathryn earned a PhD from Claremont Graduate University’s Peter
F. Drucker Center for Executive Management and a Master’s Degree in Math and an MBA
from the University of Louisville.
PAGE 102
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014
To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected]
Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
2
4
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
doc_924615740.pdf