Theories of Motivation (Part - 3 of Motivation - Ken Shah & Prof. Param J. Shah) [TYPES OF MOTIVATION (Part - 2)Theories of Motivation (Part - 3)BEING A MOTIVATING MANAGER (Part - 4) ] 1) Contribution of Robert Owen : Though Owen is considered to be paternalistic in his view, his contribution is of a considerable significance in the theories of Motivation. During the early years of the nineteenth century, Owen¶s textile mill at New Lanark in Scotland was the scene of some novel ways of treating people. His view was that people were similar to machines. A machine that is looked after properly, cared for and maintained well, performs efficiently, reliably and lastingly, similarly people are likely to be more efficient if they are taken care of. Robert Owen practiced what he preached and introduced such things as employee housing and company shop. His ideas on this and other matters were considered to be too revolutionary for that time. 2) Jeremy Bentham¶s ³The Carrot and the Stick Approach´ : Possibly the essence of the traditional view of people at work can be best appreciated by a brief look at the work of this English philosopher, whose ideas were also developed in the early years of the Industrial Revolution, around 1800. Bentham¶s view was that all people are self-interested and are motivated by the desire to avoid pain and find pleasure. Any worker will work only if the reward is big enough, or the punishment sufficiently unpleasant. This view - the µcarrot and stick¶ approach - was built into the philosophies of the age and is still to be found, especially in the older, more traditional sectors of industry. The various leading theories of motivation and motivators seldom make reference to the carrot and the stick. This metaphor relates, of course, to the use of rewards and penalties in order to induce desired behavior. It comes from the old story that to make a donkey move, one must put a carrot in front of him or dab him with a stick from behind. Despite all the research on the theories of motivation, reward and punishment are still considered strong motivators. For centuries, however, they were too often thought of as the only forces that could motivate people. At the same time, in all theories of motivation, the inducements of some kind of µcarrot¶ are recognized. Often this is money in the form of pay or bonuses. Even though money is not the only motivating force, it has been and will continue to be an important one. The trouble with the money µcarrot¶ approach is that too often everyone gets a carrot, regardless of performance through such practices as salary increase and promotion by seniority, automatic µmerit¶ increases, and executive bonuses not based on individual manager performance. It is as simple as this : If a person put a donkey in a pen full of carrots and then stood outside with a carrot, would the donkey be encouraged to come out of the pen ? The µstick¶, in the form of fear±fear of loss of job, loss of income, reduction of bonus, demotion, or some other penalty±has been and continues to be a strong motivator. Yet it is admittedly not the best kind. It often gives rise to defensive or retaliatory behavior, such as union organization, poor-quality work, executive indifference, failure of a manager to take any risks in decision
making or even dishonesty. But fear of penalty cannot be overlooked. Whether managers are first-level supervisors or chief executives, the power of their position to give or with hold rewards or impose penalties of various kinds gives them an ability to control, to a very great extent, the economic and social well-being of their subordinates. 3) Abraham Maslow¶s ³Need Hierarchy Theory´ : One of the most widely mentioned theories of motivation is the hierarchy of needs theory put forth by psychologist Abraham Maslow. Maslow saw human needs in the form of a hierarchy, ascending from the lowest to the highest, and he concluded that when one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a motivator. As per his theory this needs are : (i) Physiological needs : These are important needs for sustaining the human life. Food, water, warmth, shelter, sleep, medicine and education are the basic physiological needs which fall in the primary list of need satisfaction. Maslow was of an opinion that until these needs were satisfied to a degree to maintain life, no other motivating factors can work. (ii) Security or Safety needs : These are the needs to be free of physical danger and of the fear of losing a job, property, food or shelter. It also includes protection against any emotional harm. (iii) Social needs : Since people are social beings, they need to belong and be accepted by others. People try to satisfy their need for affection, acceptance and friendship. (iv) Esteem needs : According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their need to belong, they tend to want to be held in esteem both by themselves and by others. This kind of need produces such satisfaction as power, prestige status and self-confidence. It includes both internal esteem factors like selfrespect, autonomy and achievements and external esteem factors such as states, recognition and attention. (v) Need for self-actualization : Maslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy. It is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming, it includes growth, achieving one¶s potential and self-fulfillment. It is to maximize one¶s potential and to accomplish something.
As each of these needs are substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. From the standpoint of motivation, the theory would say that although no need is ever fully gratified, a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates. So if you want to motivate someone, you need to understand what level of the hierarchy that person is on and focus on satisfying those needs or needs above that level. Maslow¶s need theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers. This can be attributed to the theory¶s intuitive logic and ease of understanding. However, research does not validate these theory. Maslow provided no empirical evidence and other several studies that sought to validate the theory found no support for it. TOP 4) ³Theory X and Theory Y´ of Douglas McGregor : McGregor, in his book ³The Human side of Enterprise´ states that people inside the organization can be managed in two ways. The first is basically negative, which falls under the category X and the other is basically positive, which falls under the category Y. After viewing the way in which the manager dealt with employees, McGregor concluded that a manager¶s view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior towards subordinates according to these assumptions. Under the assumptions of theory X :
y y y y
Employees inherently do not like work and whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it. Because employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or threatened with punishment to achieve goals. Employees avoid responsibilities and do not work fill formal directions are issued. Most workers place a greater importance on security over all other factors and display little ambition.
In contrast under the assumptions of theory Y :
y y y y
Physical and mental effort at work is as natural as rest or play. People do exercise self-control and self-direction and if they are committed to those goals. Average human beings are willing to take responsibility and exercise imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving the problems of the organization. That the way the things are organized, the average human being¶s brainpower is only partly used.
On analysis of the assumptions it can be detected that theory X assumes that lower-order needs dominate individuals and theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate individuals. An organization that is run on Theory X lines tends to be authoritarian in nature, the word ³authoritarian´ suggests such ideas as the ³power to enforce obedience´ and the ³right to command.´ In contrast Theory Y organizations can be described as ³participative´, where the aims of the organization and of the individuals in it are integrated; individuals can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts towards the success of the organization. However, this theory has been criticized widely for generalization of work and human behavior. 5) Contribution of Rensis Likert : Likert developed a refined classification, breaking down organizations into four management systems. 1st System ± Primitive authoritarian 2nd System ± Benevolent authoritarian 3rd System ± Consultative 4th System ± Participative As per the opinion of Likert, the 4th system is the best, not only for profit organizations, but also for non-profit firms. 6) Frederick Herzberg¶s motivation-hygiene theory : Frederick has tried to modify Maslow¶s need Hierarchy theory. His theory is also known as twofactor theory or Hygiene theory. He stated that there are certain satisfiers and dissatisfiers for employees at work. In- trinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction. He devised his theory on the question : ³What do people want from their jobs ?´ He asked people to describe in detail, such situations when they felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad. From the responses that he received, he concluded that opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. He states that presence of certain factors in the organization is natural and the presence of the same does not lead to motivation. However, their nonpresence leads to demotivation. In similar manner there are certain factors, the absence of which causes no dissatisfaction, but their presence has motivational impact.
Examples of Hygiene factors are : Security, status, relationship with subordinates, personal life, salary, work conditions, relationship with supervisor and company policy and administration. Examples of Motivational factors are : Growth prospectus job advancement, responsibility, challenges, recognition and achievements. TOP 7) Contributions of Elton Mayo : The work of Elton Mayo is famously known as ³Hawthorne Experiments.´ He conducted behavioral experiments at the Hawthorne Works of the American Western Electric Company in Chicago. He made some illumination experiments, introduced breaks in between the work performance and also introduced refreshments during the pause¶s. On the basis of this he drew the conclusions that motivation was a very complex subject. It was not only about pay, work condition and morale but also included psychological and social factors. Although this research has been criticized from many angles, the central conclusions drawn were :
y
People are motivated by more than pay and conditions.
y y
The need for recognition and a sense of belonging are very important. Attitudes towards work are strongly influenced by the group.
8) Vroom¶s Valence x Expectancy theory : The most widely accepted explanations of motivation has been propounded by Victor Vroom. His theory is commonly known as expectancy theory. The theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a specific way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual to make this simple, expectancy theory says that an employee can be motivated to perform better when their is a belief that the better performance will lead to good performance appraisal and that this shall result into realization of personal goal in form of some reward. Therefore an employee is : Motivation = Valence x Expectancy. The theory focuses on three things :
y y y
Efforts and performance relationship Performance and reward relationship Rewards and personal goal relationship
This leads us to a conclusion that :
9) The Porter and Lawler Model : Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler developed a more complete version of motivation depending upon expectancy theory.
Actual performance in a job is primarily determined by the effort spent. But it is also affected by the person¶s ability to do the job and also by individual¶s perception of what the required task is. So performance is the responsible factor that leads to intrinsic as well as extrinsic rewards. These rewards, along with the equity of individual leads to satisfaction. Hence, satisfaction of the individual depends upon the fairness of the reward. 10) Clayton Alderfer¶s ERG Theory : Alderfer has tried to rebuild the hierarchy of needs of Maslow into another model named ERG i.e. Existence ± Relatedness ± Growth. According to him there are 3 groups of core needs as mentioned above. The existence group is concerned mainly with providing basic material existence. The second group is the individuals need to maintain interpersonal relationship with other members in the group. The final group is the intrinsic desire to grow and develop personally. The major conclusions of this theory are : 1. In an individual, more than one need may be operative at the same time. 2. If a higher need goes unsatisfied than the desire to satisfy a lower need intensifies. 3. It also contains the frustration-regression dimension. 11) McClelland¶s Theory of Needs : David McClelland has developed a theory on three types of motivating needs : 1. Need for Power 2. Need for Affiliation 3. Need for Achievement Basically people for high need for power are inclined towards influence and control. They like to be at the center and are good orators. They are demanding in nature, forceful in manners and
ambitious in life. They can be motivated to perform if they are given key positions or power positions. In the second category are the people who are social in nature. They try to affiliate themselves with individuals and groups. They are driven by love and faith. They like to build a friendly environment around themselves. Social recognition and affiliation with others provides them motivation. People in the third area are driven by the challenge of success and the fear of failure. Their need for achievement is moderate and they set for themselves moderately difficult tasks. They are analytical in nature and take calculated risks. Such people are motivated to perform when they see atleast some chances of success. McClelland observed that with the advancement in hierarchy the need for power and achievement increased rather than Affiliation. He also observed that people who were at the top, later ceased to be motivated by this drives. 12 ) Equity Theory : As per the equity theory of J. Stacey Adams, people are motivated by their beliefs about the reward structure as being fair or unfair, relative to the inputs. People have a tendency to use subjective judgment to balance the outcomes and inputs in the relationship for comparisons between different individuals. Accordingly :
If people feel that they are not equally rewarded they either reduce the quantity or quality of work or migrate to some other organization. However, if people perceive that they are rewarded higher, they may be motivated to work harder. 13) Reinforcement Theory : B.F. Skinner, who propounded the reinforcement theory, holds that by designing the environment properly, individuals can be motivated. Instead of considering internal factors like impressions, feelings, attitudes and other cognitive behavior, individuals are directed by what happens in the environment external to them. Skinner states that work environment should be made suitable to the individuals and that punishments actually leads to frustration and demotivation. Hence, the only way to motivate is to keep on making positive changes in the external environment of the organization. 14) Goal Setting Theory of Edwin Locke : Instead of giving vague tasks to people, specific and pronounced objectives, help in achieving them faster. As the clearity is high, a goal orientation also avoids any misunderstandings in the
work of the employees. The goal setting theory states that when the goals to be achieved are set at a higher standard than in that case employees are motivated to perform better and put in maximum effort. It revolves around the concept of ³Self-efficacy´ i.e. individual¶s belief that he or she is capable of performing a hard task. 15) Cognitive Evaluation Theory : As per these theory a shift from external rewards to internal rewards results into motivation. It believes that even after the stoppage of external stimulus, internal stimulus survives. It relates to the pay structure in the organization. Instead of treating external factors like pay, incentives, promotion etc and internal factors like interests, drives, responsibility etc, separately, they should be treated as contemporary to each other. The cognition is to be such that even when external motivators are not there the internal motivation continues. However, practically extrinsic rewards are given much more weightage. TASK TO BE PERFORMED : DEBATE : LIST 10 STRONG POINTS OF YOUR PERSONALITY LIST 10 NEGATIVE POINTS OF YOUR PERSONALITY ARE THIS 20 POINTS DEBATABLE ? TRY CHANGE THE NEGATIVE TO POSITIVE ³Ask yourself : 1. What sort of manager would you like to be managed by ? 2. Are you that sort of person ? This are two basic questions conducive to a healthy management style.´ TOP The focus of Vroom¶s ³Expectancy Theory´ is that an employee¶s motivation to complete a task is influenced by their personal views regarding: 1. The probability of completing the task and 2. The possible outcome or consequence of completing the task. Expectancy Theory states that, individuals make decisions, which they believe will lead to reward or reduce the likelihood of pain. The ultimate goal does not matter, the important factor is the impact that achieving the goal will have on the individual. An individual¶s opinion is formed by a combination of three factors which Vroom categorised as follows 1. Expectancy ± Does the individual believe that they can achieve the task 2. Valence ± Does the individual believe that completing the task will benefit them or cause
detriment. 3. Instrumentality ± What is the probability of completing the task leading to an outcome desired by the individual 1. Expectancy (Subjective Probability)
Expectancy is the individual¶s belief about whether they can achieve the task. This view will be influenced by a number of things including - The type of skills needed for the task, - Support expectations of co-workers and line managers, - Type of equipment/materials and - Availability of pertinent information. Another factor influencing expectancy is previous experience. If the task has been successfully completed in the past then expectancy will be high but if the task has failed in the past or was difficult to perform then expectancy will be low.
y y y y
There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance, Favourable performance will result in a desirable reward, The reward will satisfy an important need, The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile
If an individual feels that they can achieve the task then expectancy is measured as 1. On the other hand if they feel that the task can not be completed then expectancy is measured a 0. If the individual feels that the task may be achievable then it will be categorised between 0 and 1. Eg. A task measured as 0.75 is believed to be more achievable than one measured as 0.45. 2. Valency
Valency measures how much an individual wants the consequences of completing the task. If task completion, leads to an outcome desired by the individual, than valence is positive. Examples of positive valence are praise, promotion, recognition and pay rises. On the other hand if the individual believes that completing the task will lead to something they don¶t want then valence for the task is negative. Examples of negative valence are tiredness, wet clothes, redundancies and boredom. 3. Instrumentality
Instrumentality focuses on the probability of securing the desired outcome, following successful completion of the task.
Probability 1 ± achievement of task will lead to second outcome ie desired outcome Probability 0 ± achievement of task will not lead to second outcome ie desired outcome. Probability between 0 and 1 ± There is a chance that completion of the task will lead to the desired outcome. The higher the number, the more the individual believes that they will be rewarded with the desired outcome following completion of the task. Employees will put in more effort if they believe that performing well, will lead to a desired outcome. Performance related pay (PRP) initiatives centre on instrumentality. However, it is unlikely that PRPs will be successful, unless employees believe that their pay, will increase in line with high performance. Mathematical Relationship
Vroom said that the valence and expectancy and motivation are linked through the following equation: Force (Motivation) = Valence x Expectancy Force is the effort that an individual puts into a task. Example
In the example below employee A and B¶s task is to achieve targets and the desired outcome of achieving targets is a pay rise.
Valence (V) ie Desired outcome Expectancy (E) ie employee¶s assessment how likely it is that the task will be achieved As past performance is poor, employee assessed the task as difficult to achieve = 0.2 As past performance is reasonable, employee assessed the task as reasonably achievable = 0.6 VXE=F Ie valency multipled by expectancy 0.8 x 0.2 = F F ie Force which is the employees¶s motivation F = 0.16
Employee A
The employee believes that the outcome is very attractive. = 0.8 The employee believes that the outcome is relatively attractive. =0.6
Employee B
0.6 X 0.6 = F
F = 0.36
Previoust Page Adams ¶ Equity Theory
John Stacey Adams proposed that an employee¶s motivation is affected by whether the employee believes that their employment benefits/rewards are at least equal to the amount of the effort that they put into their work. Adam¶s categorised employment benefits and rewards as outputs and an employee¶s work effort as inputs. Input Examples
y y y y y y y
The number of hours worked by the employee An employee¶s work responsibilities An employee¶s work duties The work commitment demonstrated by the employee An employee¶s loyalty An employee¶s flexibility such as undertaking tasks at short notice The support that the employee has provided to the organisation, colleagues and line managers
Output Examples
y y y y y y y y y
Salary Bonus Prizes Recognition of the employee¶s contribution Positive work appraisals Work promotions Pension Employer flexibility Annual leave
Adam¶s stated that if an employee believes that their work outputs are not equal or greater than their inputs then the employee will become de-motivated. Adams¶ theory includes the assertion that when an employee is assessing whether the outputs they receive are fair the employee will often compare their colleague¶s work inputs and outputs with their own. The comparison will often be made with an employee at a similar level in the organisation to the employee.
Elton Mayo¶s Hawthorn experiments Elton Mayo¶s team conducted a number of experiments involving six female workers. These experiments are often referred to as the Hawthorne experiments or Hawthorne studies as they took place at The Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company in Chicago. Over the course of five years, Mayo¶s team altered the female worker¶s working conditions and then monitored how the working conditions affected the workers morale and productivity. The changes in working conditions included changes in working hours, rest brakes, lighting, humidity, and temperature. The changes were explained to the workers prior to implementation. At the end of the five year period, the female worker¶s working conditions, reverted back to the conditions before the experiment began. Unexpectedly the workers morale and productivity rose to levels higher than before and during the experiments. The combination of results during and after the experiment (ie the increase in the workers productivity when they were returned to their original working conditions) led Mayo to conclude that workers were motivated by psychological conditions more than physical working condition. He also concluded that workers were motivated by more than self interest and instead the following applied:
y
There is an unwritten understanding between the worker and employer regarding what is expected from them; Mayo called this the psychological contract.
y
A worker¶s motivation can be increased by showing an interest in them. Mayo classified studying the workers (through the experiments) as showing an interest in the workers.
y
Work is a group activity, team work can increase a worker¶s motivation as it allows people to form strong working relationships and increases trust between the workers. Work groups are created formally by the employer but also occur informally. Both informal and formal groups should be used to increase productivity as informal groups influence the worker¶s habits and attitudes.
y
Workers are motivated by the social aspect of work, as demonstrated by the female workers socialising during and outside work and the subsequent increase in motivation.
y
Workers are motivated by recognition, security and a sense of belonging.
y
The communication between workers and management influences workers¶ morale and productivity. Workers are motivated through a good working relationship with management.
Frederick Herzberg explored the question ³What do people want from their jobs´. He did this through asking various people about situations and events at work, when they felt exceptionally good or bad about their jobs. Herzberg¶s collection of information revealed that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, whilst extrinsic factors created job dissatisfaction. In other words when people felt satisfied and happy at work the conditions present were directly affecting their inner feelings and self esteem. Yet dissatisfaction was created by the job environment people worked in and the interactions within that environment. This distinction is clearly illustrated in the table below.
Management Concepts
Motivators creating job satisfaction
y y
Hygiene factors creating job dissatisfaction
y y
Achievement Recognition
Supervision Company Policy
y y y y
Work Itself Responsibility Advancement Growth
y y y y y y y y
Relationship with Supervisor Working Conditions Salary Relationship with Peers Personal Life Relationship with Subordinates Status Security
As job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are controlled by different factors Herzberg concluded that job satisfaction was not the opposite of job dissatisfaction. In contrast to the accepted theories at the time, Herzberg believed that job satisfaction was a distinct and separate entity from job dissatisfaction. In other words the complete removal of job dissatisfaction will not cause an employee to feel job satisfaction. Similarly job satisfaction does not necessarily eradicate all elements of job dissatisfaction. Herzberg therefore decided that the opposite of job dissatisfaction was simply a work environment containing ³no dissatisfaction´ and the opposite of job satisfaction was an employee feeling ³no satisfaction´. As extrinsic factors do not motivate employees Herzberg referred to these as Hygiene factors and intrinsic factors were called motivators for obvious reasons. From the 1960s to the 1980¶s Herzberg¶s theory of motivators and hygiene factors was widely popular. After that other studies labelled it as simplistic but its principles can still be found within other motivation theories.
Abraham Maslow between 1943-1954 developed his 'Hierarchy of needs' motivation theory. It is probably the most popular and most read motivation theory. His theory suggests that within each person their is a hierarchy of needs and the individual must satisfy each level before they move onto the next. There are five hierarchical levels. These are:
y y y y y
Physiological needs: Food, shelter, sexual satisfaction i.e those needs needed for basic survival. Safety needs: The need to feel safe within your environment. Also refers to emotional and physical safety. Social Needs: The need for love, friendship and belongingness Esteem needs: The need for self respect, status and recognition from others. Self actualisation: The point of reaching ones full potential. Are you capable at excelling yourself?
Diagram: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
So an individual will need to satisfy their most basic need before they can move onto the next. Only when that individual knows that they have met their physiological needs will they move onto their safety needs. Maslow suggests that if you wanted to motivate an individual you will need to know where within the hierarchy they are placed. So how would an organisation use Maslows theory? Application of Maslow's theory within the workplace. Maslows level What the organisation could do Safe working condition Work social events Feedback via appraisal, generally praising staff
Physiological Competitive salary Safety Social Esteem
Self actualisation
Allocating more challenging and stimulating responsibilities
There are however problems with Maslows theory. Firstly it is difficult to tell at what level a person is at within their hierarchy and when that level has been satisfied. Also there is little statistical evidence to prove that this theory actually works. Neverless, it is popular and does have some weight behind it.
braham Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs model in 1940-50s USA, and the Hierarchy of Needs theory remains valid today for understanding human motivation, management training, and personal development. Indeed, Maslow's ideas surrounding the Hierarchy of Needs concerning the responsibility of employers to provide a workplace environment that encourages and enables employees to fulfil their own unique potential (self-actualization) are today more relevant than ever. Abraham Maslow's book Motivation and Personality, published in 1954 (second edition 1970) introduced the Hierarchy of Needs, and Maslow extended his ideas in other work, notably his later book Toward A Psychology Of Being, a significant and relevant commentary, which has been revised in recent times by Richard Lowry, who is in his own right a leading academic in the field of motivational psychology... Abraham Maslow was born in New York in 1908 and died in 1970, although various publications appear in Maslow's name in later years. Maslow's PhD in psychology in 1934 at the University of Wisconsin formed the basis of his motivational research, initially studying rhesus monkeys. Maslow later moved to New York's Brooklyn College. The Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs five-stage model below (structure and terminology - not the precise pyramid diagram itself) is clearly and directly attributable to Maslow; later versions of the theory with added motivational stages are not so clearly attributable to Maslow. These extended models have instead been inferred by others from Maslow's work. Specifically Maslow refers to the needs Cognitive, Aesthetic and Transcendence (subsequently shown as distinct needs levels in some interpretations of his theory) as additional aspects of motivation, but not as distinct levels in the Hierarchy of Needs. Where Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is shown with more than five levels these models have been extended through interpretation of Maslow's work by other people. These augmented models and diagrams are shown as the adapted seven and eight-stage Hierarchy of Needs pyramid diagrams and models below. There have been very many interpretations of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs in the form of pyramid diagrams. The diagrams on this page are my own interpretations and are not offered as Maslow's
original work. Interestingly in Maslow's book Motivation and Personality, which first introduced the Hierarchy of Needs, there is not a pyramid to be seen. Free Hierarchy of Needs diagrams in pdf and doc formats similar to the image below are available from this page. (N.B. The word Actualization/Actualisation can be spelt either way. Z is preferred in American English. S is preferred in UK English. Both forms are used in this page to enable keyword searching for either spelling via search engines.)
maslow's hierarchy of needs Each of us is motivated by needs. Our most basic needs are inborn, having evolved over tens of thousands of years. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs helps to explain how these needs motivate us all. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs states that we must satisfy each need in turn, starting with the first, which deals with the most obvious needs for survival itself. Only when the lower order needs of physical and emotional well-being are satisfied are we concerned with the higher order needs of influence and personal development. Conversely, if the things that satisfy our lower order needs are swept away, we are no longer concerned about the maintenance of our higher order needs. Maslow's original Hierarchy of Needs model was developed between 1943-1954, and first widely published in Motivation and Personality in 1954. At this time the Hierarchy of Needs model comprised five needs. This original version remains for most people the definitive Hierarchy of Needs.
maslow's hierarchy of needs - free pdf diagram and free doc diagram 1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. 3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. 4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige,
managerial responsibility, etc. 5. Self-Actualization needs - realising personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.
This is the definitive and original Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. While Maslow referred to various additional aspects of motivation, he expressed the Hierarchy of Needs in these five clear stages. Here is a quick simple self-test based on the original Maslow's 5-level Hierarchy of Needs. It's not a scientific or validated instrument - merely a quick indicator, which can be used for self-awareness, discussion, etc.
1970s adapted hierarchy of needs model, including cognitive and aesthetic needs - free pdf diagram and free doc diagram 1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. 3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. 4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc. 5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc. 6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. 7. Self-Actualization needs - realising personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.
N.B. Although Maslow referred to additional aspects of motivation, 'Cognitive' and 'Aesthetic', he did not include them as levels or stages within his own expression of the Hierarchy of Needs.
1990s adapted hierarchy of needs including transcendence needs - free diagram and free doc diagram 1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. 3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. 4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc. 5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc. 6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. 7. Self-Actualization needs - realising personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. 8. Transcendence needs - helping others to achieve self actualization.
N.B. Although Maslow referred to additional aspects of motivation, 'Cognitive', 'Aesthetic', and 'Transcendence', he did not include any of these as additional stages in the Hierarchy of Needs. Here is a quick self-test based on the extended 8-level Hierarchy of Needs. Like the 5-level Hierarchy of Needs self-test it is not a scientific or validated instrument - merely a quick indicator for helping selfawareness, discussion, etc.
what hierarchy of needs model is most valid? Abraham Maslow created the original five level Hierarchy of Needs model, and for many this remains entirely adequate for its purpose. The seven and eight level 'hierarchy of needs' models are later adaptations by others, based on Maslow's work. Arguably, the original five-level model includes the later additional sixth, seventh and eighth ('Cognitive', 'Aesthetic', and 'Transcendence') levels within the original 'Self-Actualization' level 5, since each one of the 'new' motivators concerns an area of selfdevelopment and self-fulfilment that is rooted in self-actualization 'growth', and is distinctly different to any of the previous 1-4 level 'deficiency' motivators. For many people, self-actualizing commonly involves each and every one of the newly added drivers. As such, the original five-level Hierarchy of Needs model remains a definitive classical representation of human motivation; and the later adaptations perhaps serve best to illustrate aspects of self-actualization.
Maslow said that needs must be satisfied in the given order. Aims and drive always shift to next higher order needs. Levels 1 to 4 are deficiency motivators; level 5, and by implication 6 to 8, are growth motivators and relatively rarely found. The thwarting of needs is usually a cause of stress, and is particularly so at level 4. Examples in use: You can't motivate someone to achieve their sales target (level 4) when they're having problems with their marriage (level 3). You can't expect someone to work as a team member (level 3) when they're having their house repossessed (level 2).
maslow's self-actualizing characteristics keen sense of reality - aware of real situations - objective judgement, rather than subjective see problems in terms of challenges and situations requiring solutions, rather than see problems as personal complaints or excuses need for privacy and comfortable being alone reliant on own experiences and judgement - independent - not reliant on culture and environment to form opinions and views not susceptible to social pressures - non-conformist democratic, fair and non-discriminating - embracing and enjoying all cultures, races and individual styles socially compassionate - possessing humanity accepting others as they are and not trying to change people comfortable with oneself - despite any unconventional tendencies a few close intimate friends rather than many surface relationships sense of humour directed at oneself or the human condition, rather than at the expense of others spontaneous and natural - true to oneself, rather than being how others want excited and interested in everything, even ordinary things creative, inventive and original seek peak experiences that leave a lasting impression See the Maslow interviews DVDs - especially Maslow and Self-Actualization to understand the subject more fully. These films were made in 1968 and are helpful on several levels, and both wonderful teaching and learning aids. See also the newer Maslow MP3 talks series.
These materials also help to illustrate the far-reaching and visionary nature of Maslow's thinking, several decades ago. The above materials are published by Maurice Bassett on behalf of the estate of Abraham Maslow. Businessballs takes no commission and recommends them simply because they are wonderful materials for all students and followers of Maslow's very special work.
maslow's hierarchy of needs in advertising To help with training of Maslow's theory look for Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs motivators in advertising. This is a great basis for Maslow and motivation training exercises: Biological and Physiological needs - wife/child-abuse help-lines, social security benefits, Samaritans, roadside recovery. Safety needs - home security products (alarms, etc), house an contents insurance, life assurance, schools. Belongingness and Love needs - dating and match-making services, chat-lines, clubs and membership societies, Macdonalds, 'family' themes like the old style Oxo stock cube ads. Esteem needs - cosmetics, fast cars, home improvements, furniture, fashion clothes, drinks, lifestyle products and services. Self-Actualization needs - Open University, and that's about it; little else in mainstream media because only 2% of population are self-actualizers, so they don't constitute a very big part of the mainstream market. You can view and download free Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs diagrams, and two free Hierarchy of Needs self-tests, based on the original Maslow's five-stage model and later adapted eight-stage model, ideal for training, presentations and project work, at the businessballs free online resources section. Free diagrams include: Pyramid diagram based on Maslow's original five-level Hierarchy of Needs (1954). Adapted seven-level Hierarchy of Needs diagram (which seems to have first appeared in the 1970s after Maslow's death). Adapted eight-level Hierarchy of Needs diagram (appearing later, seemingly 1990s).
interpreting behaviour according to maslow's hierarchy of needs Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is an excellent model for understanding human motivation, but it is a broad concept. If you are puzzled as to how to relate given behaviour to the Hierarchy it could be that
your definition of the behaviour needs refining. For example, 'where does 'doing things for fun' fit into the model? The answer is that it can't until you define 'doing things for fun' more accurately. You'd need to define more precisely each given situation where a person is 'doing things for fun' in order to analyse motivation according to Maslow's Hierarchy, since the 'fun' activity motive can potentially be part any of the five original Maslow needs. Understanding whether striving to achieve a particular need or aim is 'fun' can provide a helpful basis for identifying a Maslow driver within a given behaviour, and thereby to assess where a particular behaviour fits into the model: Biological - health, fitness, energising mind and body, etc. Safety - order and structure needs met for example by some heavily organised, structural activity Belongingness - team sport, club 'family' and relationships Esteem - competition, achievement, recognition Self-Actualization drivers - challenge, new experiences, love of art, nature, etc. However in order to relate a particular 'doing it for fun' behaviour the Hierarchy of Needs we need to consider what makes it 'fun' (i.e., rewarding) for the person. If a behaviour is 'for fun', then consider what makes it 'fun' for the person - is the 'fun' rooted in 'belongingness', or is it from 'recognition', i.e., 'esteem'. Or is the fun at a deeper level, from the sense of self-fulfilment, i.e., 'self-actualization'. Apply this approach to any behaviour that doesn't immediately fit the model, and it will help you to see where it does fit. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs will be a blunt instrument if used as such. The way you use the Hierarchy of Needs determines the subtlety and sophistication of the model. For example: the common broad-brush interpretation of Maslow's famous theory suggests that that once a need is satisfied the person moves onto the next, and to an extent this is entirely correct. However an overly rigid application of this interpretation will produce a rigid analysis, and people and motivation are more complex. So while it is broadly true that people move up (or down) the hierarchy, depending what's happening to them in their lives, it is also true that most people's motivational 'set' at any time comprises elements of all of the motivational drivers. For example, self-actualizers (level 5 original model) are mainly focused on self-actualizing but are still motivated to eat (level 1) and socialise (level 3). Similarly, homeless folk whose main focus is feeding themselves (level 1) and finding shelter for the night (level 2) can also be, albeit to a lesser extent, still concerned with social relationships (level 3), how their friends perceive them (level 4), and even the meaning of life (level 5 - original model). Like any simple model, Maslow's theory not a fully responsive system - it's a guide which requires some interpretation and thought, given which, it remains extremely useful and applicable for understanding, explaining and handling many human behaviour situations.
maslow's hierarchy of needs and helping others There are certainly some behaviours that are quite tricky to relate to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. For example: Normally, we would consider that selflessly helping others, as a form of personal growth motivation, would be found as part of self-actualisation, or perhaps even 'transcendence' (if you subscribe to the extended hierarchy). So how can we explain the examples of people who seem to be far short of self-actualising, and yet are still able to help others in a meaningful and unselfish sense? Interestingly this concept seems to be used increasingly as an effective way to help people deal with depression, low self-esteem, poor life circumstances, etc., and it almost turns the essential Maslow model on its head: that is, by helping others, a person helps themselves to improve and develop too. The principle has also been applied quite recently to developing disaffected school-children, whom, as part of their own development, have been encouraged and enabled to 'teach' other younger children (which can arguably be interpreted as their acting at a self-actualising level - selflessly helping others). The disaffected children, theoretically striving to belong and be accepted (level 3 - belongingness) were actually remarkably good at helping other children, despite their own negative feelings and issues. Under certain circumstances, a person striving to satisfy their needs at level 3 - belongingness, seems able to self-actualise - level 5 (and perhaps beyond, into 'transcendence') by selflessly helping others, and at the same time begins to satisfy their own needs for belongingness and self-esteem. Such examples demonstrate the need for careful interpretation and application of the Maslow model. The Hierarchy of Needs is not a catch-all, but it does remain a wonderfully useful framework for analysing and trying to understand the subtleties - as well as the broader aspects - of human behaviour and growth.
self-actualisation, employees and organisations Maslow's work and ideas extend far beyond the Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow's concept of self-actualisation relates directly to the present day challenges and opportunities for employers and organisations - to provide real meaning, purpose and true personal development for
their employees. For life - not just for work. Maslow saw these issues fifty years ago: the fact that employees have a basic human need and a right to strive for self-actualisation, just as much as the corporate directors and owners do. Increasingly, the successful organisations and employers will be those who genuinely care about, understand, encourage and enable their people's personal growth towards self-actualisation - way beyond traditional work-related training and development, and of course way beyond old-style X-Theory management autocracy, which still forms the basis of much organised employment today. The best modern employers and organisations are beginning to learn at last: that sustainable success is built on a serious and compassionate commitment to helping people identify, pursue and reach their own personal unique potential. When people grow as people, they automatically become more effective and valuable as employees. In fact virtually all personal growth, whether in a hobby, a special talent or interest, or a new experience, produces new skills, attributes, behaviours and wisdom that is directly transferable to any sort of job role. The best modern employers recognise this and as such offer development support to their staff in any direction whatsoever that the person seeks to grow and become more fulfilled.
classic 1968 maslow interviews now on dvd Both filmed in 1968, after Maslow's heart attack, and obviously prior to his death in 1970, these superb Maslow DVDs show Dr Maslow being interviewed, respectively by Dr Everett Shostrom, and also interestingly, Warren Bennis. Both films - available here - were made in 1968 and were remastered in black and white in 2007. The remarkable content, and the 1960s styling and production add to the seductive and powerful effect of these films, which stems chiefly from Maslow's brilliant thinking and natural charismatic presence. Being Abraham Maslow is half an hour long, and features Maslow talking to Warren Bennis about his life, his views of the world and his work. It is utterly compelling and shows Maslow's staggering perception of the issues which challenge society and humankind today - and this was recorded in 1968. The film, basically irresistible throughout, includes some marvelous moments, such as Maslow's questioning observation as to "...how good a human nature does society permit?...", and the visionary statement that: "...The Good Society now has to be one world - it has to be one world or it won't work nationalism is dead - it just doesn't know it yet..."
He said this in 1968 and still today our leaders don't see it. Maslow and Self-Actualization is an hour long, in two parts, in which Maslow is interviewed by Dr Everett Shostrom about Self-Actualization, in which Shostrom uses references and quotes extracts from Maslow's book Motivation and Personality, and Maslow explains and develops the themes. The structure is excellent - ideal for teaching and training. Self-Actualization is presented by Maslow through a series of answers, working through the concept in four sections: honesty, awareness, freedom and trust. Maslow brings these headings to life, conveying some very complex intangible ideas - such as objectivity, detachment, maturity, love, acceptance, modesty and grace - in the most understandable way. Personally this video is one of the most powerful things I've ever seen. The film can be used as a teaching aid, and/or as the presenter suggests, to help people understand SelfActualization as goals or values to aspire to: "...ideas for living and being, fully functioning to one's full capacity..." For anyone teaching or studying motivation, psychology, Maslow, and related areas - or simply interested in living a fulfilled and good life - these films will be fascinating, and for some people deeply inspirational too. Both films are available here. In terms of format/compatibility, these US-made films wouldn't play on my (cheap) UK DVD player, but they ran happily on my (cheap) UK PC. The above dvd materials are published by Maurice Bassett on behalf of the estate of Abraham Maslow.
additional maslow talks now on mp3 In August 2009 further exciting Maslow material became available for download in mp3 format after extensive work by publisher Maurice Bassett. Volumes One and Two include a total of 28 and a half hours of Abraham Maslow's talks and workshops at the Esalen Institute, Big Sur, California, from the mid and late-1960s. The materials comprise: Volume One: Self-Actualization (1 mp3 file, total playing time 1 hour) Psychology and Religious Awareness (1 mp3 file, total playing time 1 hour) The Aims of Education (1 mp3 file, total playing time 1 hour) The B-language Workshop (5 mp3 files, total playing time 5 hours, 35 minutes)
Weekend with Maslow (9 mp3 files, total playing time 4 hours, 25 minutes) Volume Two: The Eupsychian Ethic (6 mp3 files, total playing time 5 hours, 45 minutes) The Farther Reaches of Human Nature (10 mp3 files, total playing time 9 hours, 45 minutes) Samples and the entire recordings are available at www.abrahammaslow.com/audio.html The mp3 materials above are published by Maurice Bassett on behalf of the estate of Abraham Maslow.
maslow's modern relevance When you read Maslow's work, and particularly when you hear him speak about it, the relevance of his thinking to our modern world of work and management is astounding. His explanations and interpretations of the human condition remain fundamentally helpful in understanding and addressing all sorts of social and behavioural questions - forty or fifty years after his death. You will particularly see great significance of his ideas in relation to modern challenges for work such as in the Psychological Contract and leadership ethics, and even extending to globalization and society. Maslow is obviously most famous for his Hierarchy of Needs theory, rightly so, because it is a wonderfully simple and elegant model for understanding so many aspects of human motivation, especially in the workplace. The simplicity of the model however tends to limit appreciation of Maslow's vision and humanity, which still today are remarkably penetrating and sensitive. Read more:http://edu4adults.blogspot.com/2010/11/abraham-maslows-hierarchy-ofneeds.html#ixzz14lDp8AnO
Douglas McGregor¶s theory of motivation or XY theory proposes that organisations follow one of two approaches in their management of people. Below is a summary of each theory. Theory X This theory is also referred to as ³the authoritarian management style´, as it states that the average person needs to be coerced (even threatened with punishment), into working towards organisational objectives.
y y y y
The average employee does not like work and will attempt to avoid it. As employees are lazy they do not want responsibility and have no ambition. Individuals prefer to be directed and want security above everything else. Individuals need to be closely supervised and controlled.
Theory Y Also known as ³the participative management style´, a theory Y organisation¶s view of people is the opposite of an organisation applying theory X.
y y y y y y
The average employee likes work, and is self-motivated. Employees can learn to not only accept but seek greater responsibility. Individuals are ambitious not lazy, and work is as natural as rest and play. Individuals exercise self control and self-direction to achieve objectives that they are committed to. Threats of punishment are unnecessary. The rewards of achievement generate commitment from employees. If individuals are given freedom there is opportunity to increase productivity.
Managers applying theory Y believe that if employees are given the opportunity, they will develop a desire to be imaginative and creative at work. They will therefore try and remove obstacles that prevent employees from realising their potential. They believe that negative attitudes such as avoidance of responsibility are caused by experience and are not ³inherent characteristics´. Therefore by creating the positive experiences and conditions such negatives can be banished. McGregor¶s theory of X and Y represents two extremes, which probably aren¶t applied in full by today¶s organisations. However the theory has provided the foundations for today¶s management strategy and elements of it can be seen in other management evaluations
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making or even dishonesty. But fear of penalty cannot be overlooked. Whether managers are first-level supervisors or chief executives, the power of their position to give or with hold rewards or impose penalties of various kinds gives them an ability to control, to a very great extent, the economic and social well-being of their subordinates. 3) Abraham Maslow¶s ³Need Hierarchy Theory´ : One of the most widely mentioned theories of motivation is the hierarchy of needs theory put forth by psychologist Abraham Maslow. Maslow saw human needs in the form of a hierarchy, ascending from the lowest to the highest, and he concluded that when one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a motivator. As per his theory this needs are : (i) Physiological needs : These are important needs for sustaining the human life. Food, water, warmth, shelter, sleep, medicine and education are the basic physiological needs which fall in the primary list of need satisfaction. Maslow was of an opinion that until these needs were satisfied to a degree to maintain life, no other motivating factors can work. (ii) Security or Safety needs : These are the needs to be free of physical danger and of the fear of losing a job, property, food or shelter. It also includes protection against any emotional harm. (iii) Social needs : Since people are social beings, they need to belong and be accepted by others. People try to satisfy their need for affection, acceptance and friendship. (iv) Esteem needs : According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their need to belong, they tend to want to be held in esteem both by themselves and by others. This kind of need produces such satisfaction as power, prestige status and self-confidence. It includes both internal esteem factors like selfrespect, autonomy and achievements and external esteem factors such as states, recognition and attention. (v) Need for self-actualization : Maslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy. It is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming, it includes growth, achieving one¶s potential and self-fulfillment. It is to maximize one¶s potential and to accomplish something.
As each of these needs are substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. From the standpoint of motivation, the theory would say that although no need is ever fully gratified, a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates. So if you want to motivate someone, you need to understand what level of the hierarchy that person is on and focus on satisfying those needs or needs above that level. Maslow¶s need theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers. This can be attributed to the theory¶s intuitive logic and ease of understanding. However, research does not validate these theory. Maslow provided no empirical evidence and other several studies that sought to validate the theory found no support for it. TOP 4) ³Theory X and Theory Y´ of Douglas McGregor : McGregor, in his book ³The Human side of Enterprise´ states that people inside the organization can be managed in two ways. The first is basically negative, which falls under the category X and the other is basically positive, which falls under the category Y. After viewing the way in which the manager dealt with employees, McGregor concluded that a manager¶s view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior towards subordinates according to these assumptions. Under the assumptions of theory X :
y y y y
Employees inherently do not like work and whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it. Because employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or threatened with punishment to achieve goals. Employees avoid responsibilities and do not work fill formal directions are issued. Most workers place a greater importance on security over all other factors and display little ambition.
In contrast under the assumptions of theory Y :
y y y y
Physical and mental effort at work is as natural as rest or play. People do exercise self-control and self-direction and if they are committed to those goals. Average human beings are willing to take responsibility and exercise imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving the problems of the organization. That the way the things are organized, the average human being¶s brainpower is only partly used.
On analysis of the assumptions it can be detected that theory X assumes that lower-order needs dominate individuals and theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate individuals. An organization that is run on Theory X lines tends to be authoritarian in nature, the word ³authoritarian´ suggests such ideas as the ³power to enforce obedience´ and the ³right to command.´ In contrast Theory Y organizations can be described as ³participative´, where the aims of the organization and of the individuals in it are integrated; individuals can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts towards the success of the organization. However, this theory has been criticized widely for generalization of work and human behavior. 5) Contribution of Rensis Likert : Likert developed a refined classification, breaking down organizations into four management systems. 1st System ± Primitive authoritarian 2nd System ± Benevolent authoritarian 3rd System ± Consultative 4th System ± Participative As per the opinion of Likert, the 4th system is the best, not only for profit organizations, but also for non-profit firms. 6) Frederick Herzberg¶s motivation-hygiene theory : Frederick has tried to modify Maslow¶s need Hierarchy theory. His theory is also known as twofactor theory or Hygiene theory. He stated that there are certain satisfiers and dissatisfiers for employees at work. In- trinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction. He devised his theory on the question : ³What do people want from their jobs ?´ He asked people to describe in detail, such situations when they felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad. From the responses that he received, he concluded that opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. He states that presence of certain factors in the organization is natural and the presence of the same does not lead to motivation. However, their nonpresence leads to demotivation. In similar manner there are certain factors, the absence of which causes no dissatisfaction, but their presence has motivational impact.
Examples of Hygiene factors are : Security, status, relationship with subordinates, personal life, salary, work conditions, relationship with supervisor and company policy and administration. Examples of Motivational factors are : Growth prospectus job advancement, responsibility, challenges, recognition and achievements. TOP 7) Contributions of Elton Mayo : The work of Elton Mayo is famously known as ³Hawthorne Experiments.´ He conducted behavioral experiments at the Hawthorne Works of the American Western Electric Company in Chicago. He made some illumination experiments, introduced breaks in between the work performance and also introduced refreshments during the pause¶s. On the basis of this he drew the conclusions that motivation was a very complex subject. It was not only about pay, work condition and morale but also included psychological and social factors. Although this research has been criticized from many angles, the central conclusions drawn were :
y
People are motivated by more than pay and conditions.
y y
The need for recognition and a sense of belonging are very important. Attitudes towards work are strongly influenced by the group.
8) Vroom¶s Valence x Expectancy theory : The most widely accepted explanations of motivation has been propounded by Victor Vroom. His theory is commonly known as expectancy theory. The theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a specific way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual to make this simple, expectancy theory says that an employee can be motivated to perform better when their is a belief that the better performance will lead to good performance appraisal and that this shall result into realization of personal goal in form of some reward. Therefore an employee is : Motivation = Valence x Expectancy. The theory focuses on three things :
y y y
Efforts and performance relationship Performance and reward relationship Rewards and personal goal relationship
This leads us to a conclusion that :
9) The Porter and Lawler Model : Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler developed a more complete version of motivation depending upon expectancy theory.
Actual performance in a job is primarily determined by the effort spent. But it is also affected by the person¶s ability to do the job and also by individual¶s perception of what the required task is. So performance is the responsible factor that leads to intrinsic as well as extrinsic rewards. These rewards, along with the equity of individual leads to satisfaction. Hence, satisfaction of the individual depends upon the fairness of the reward. 10) Clayton Alderfer¶s ERG Theory : Alderfer has tried to rebuild the hierarchy of needs of Maslow into another model named ERG i.e. Existence ± Relatedness ± Growth. According to him there are 3 groups of core needs as mentioned above. The existence group is concerned mainly with providing basic material existence. The second group is the individuals need to maintain interpersonal relationship with other members in the group. The final group is the intrinsic desire to grow and develop personally. The major conclusions of this theory are : 1. In an individual, more than one need may be operative at the same time. 2. If a higher need goes unsatisfied than the desire to satisfy a lower need intensifies. 3. It also contains the frustration-regression dimension. 11) McClelland¶s Theory of Needs : David McClelland has developed a theory on three types of motivating needs : 1. Need for Power 2. Need for Affiliation 3. Need for Achievement Basically people for high need for power are inclined towards influence and control. They like to be at the center and are good orators. They are demanding in nature, forceful in manners and
ambitious in life. They can be motivated to perform if they are given key positions or power positions. In the second category are the people who are social in nature. They try to affiliate themselves with individuals and groups. They are driven by love and faith. They like to build a friendly environment around themselves. Social recognition and affiliation with others provides them motivation. People in the third area are driven by the challenge of success and the fear of failure. Their need for achievement is moderate and they set for themselves moderately difficult tasks. They are analytical in nature and take calculated risks. Such people are motivated to perform when they see atleast some chances of success. McClelland observed that with the advancement in hierarchy the need for power and achievement increased rather than Affiliation. He also observed that people who were at the top, later ceased to be motivated by this drives. 12 ) Equity Theory : As per the equity theory of J. Stacey Adams, people are motivated by their beliefs about the reward structure as being fair or unfair, relative to the inputs. People have a tendency to use subjective judgment to balance the outcomes and inputs in the relationship for comparisons between different individuals. Accordingly :
If people feel that they are not equally rewarded they either reduce the quantity or quality of work or migrate to some other organization. However, if people perceive that they are rewarded higher, they may be motivated to work harder. 13) Reinforcement Theory : B.F. Skinner, who propounded the reinforcement theory, holds that by designing the environment properly, individuals can be motivated. Instead of considering internal factors like impressions, feelings, attitudes and other cognitive behavior, individuals are directed by what happens in the environment external to them. Skinner states that work environment should be made suitable to the individuals and that punishments actually leads to frustration and demotivation. Hence, the only way to motivate is to keep on making positive changes in the external environment of the organization. 14) Goal Setting Theory of Edwin Locke : Instead of giving vague tasks to people, specific and pronounced objectives, help in achieving them faster. As the clearity is high, a goal orientation also avoids any misunderstandings in the
work of the employees. The goal setting theory states that when the goals to be achieved are set at a higher standard than in that case employees are motivated to perform better and put in maximum effort. It revolves around the concept of ³Self-efficacy´ i.e. individual¶s belief that he or she is capable of performing a hard task. 15) Cognitive Evaluation Theory : As per these theory a shift from external rewards to internal rewards results into motivation. It believes that even after the stoppage of external stimulus, internal stimulus survives. It relates to the pay structure in the organization. Instead of treating external factors like pay, incentives, promotion etc and internal factors like interests, drives, responsibility etc, separately, they should be treated as contemporary to each other. The cognition is to be such that even when external motivators are not there the internal motivation continues. However, practically extrinsic rewards are given much more weightage. TASK TO BE PERFORMED : DEBATE : LIST 10 STRONG POINTS OF YOUR PERSONALITY LIST 10 NEGATIVE POINTS OF YOUR PERSONALITY ARE THIS 20 POINTS DEBATABLE ? TRY CHANGE THE NEGATIVE TO POSITIVE ³Ask yourself : 1. What sort of manager would you like to be managed by ? 2. Are you that sort of person ? This are two basic questions conducive to a healthy management style.´ TOP The focus of Vroom¶s ³Expectancy Theory´ is that an employee¶s motivation to complete a task is influenced by their personal views regarding: 1. The probability of completing the task and 2. The possible outcome or consequence of completing the task. Expectancy Theory states that, individuals make decisions, which they believe will lead to reward or reduce the likelihood of pain. The ultimate goal does not matter, the important factor is the impact that achieving the goal will have on the individual. An individual¶s opinion is formed by a combination of three factors which Vroom categorised as follows 1. Expectancy ± Does the individual believe that they can achieve the task 2. Valence ± Does the individual believe that completing the task will benefit them or cause
detriment. 3. Instrumentality ± What is the probability of completing the task leading to an outcome desired by the individual 1. Expectancy (Subjective Probability)
Expectancy is the individual¶s belief about whether they can achieve the task. This view will be influenced by a number of things including - The type of skills needed for the task, - Support expectations of co-workers and line managers, - Type of equipment/materials and - Availability of pertinent information. Another factor influencing expectancy is previous experience. If the task has been successfully completed in the past then expectancy will be high but if the task has failed in the past or was difficult to perform then expectancy will be low.
y y y y
There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance, Favourable performance will result in a desirable reward, The reward will satisfy an important need, The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile
If an individual feels that they can achieve the task then expectancy is measured as 1. On the other hand if they feel that the task can not be completed then expectancy is measured a 0. If the individual feels that the task may be achievable then it will be categorised between 0 and 1. Eg. A task measured as 0.75 is believed to be more achievable than one measured as 0.45. 2. Valency
Valency measures how much an individual wants the consequences of completing the task. If task completion, leads to an outcome desired by the individual, than valence is positive. Examples of positive valence are praise, promotion, recognition and pay rises. On the other hand if the individual believes that completing the task will lead to something they don¶t want then valence for the task is negative. Examples of negative valence are tiredness, wet clothes, redundancies and boredom. 3. Instrumentality
Instrumentality focuses on the probability of securing the desired outcome, following successful completion of the task.
Probability 1 ± achievement of task will lead to second outcome ie desired outcome Probability 0 ± achievement of task will not lead to second outcome ie desired outcome. Probability between 0 and 1 ± There is a chance that completion of the task will lead to the desired outcome. The higher the number, the more the individual believes that they will be rewarded with the desired outcome following completion of the task. Employees will put in more effort if they believe that performing well, will lead to a desired outcome. Performance related pay (PRP) initiatives centre on instrumentality. However, it is unlikely that PRPs will be successful, unless employees believe that their pay, will increase in line with high performance. Mathematical Relationship
Vroom said that the valence and expectancy and motivation are linked through the following equation: Force (Motivation) = Valence x Expectancy Force is the effort that an individual puts into a task. Example
In the example below employee A and B¶s task is to achieve targets and the desired outcome of achieving targets is a pay rise.
Valence (V) ie Desired outcome Expectancy (E) ie employee¶s assessment how likely it is that the task will be achieved As past performance is poor, employee assessed the task as difficult to achieve = 0.2 As past performance is reasonable, employee assessed the task as reasonably achievable = 0.6 VXE=F Ie valency multipled by expectancy 0.8 x 0.2 = F F ie Force which is the employees¶s motivation F = 0.16
Employee A
The employee believes that the outcome is very attractive. = 0.8 The employee believes that the outcome is relatively attractive. =0.6
Employee B
0.6 X 0.6 = F
F = 0.36
Previoust Page Adams ¶ Equity Theory
John Stacey Adams proposed that an employee¶s motivation is affected by whether the employee believes that their employment benefits/rewards are at least equal to the amount of the effort that they put into their work. Adam¶s categorised employment benefits and rewards as outputs and an employee¶s work effort as inputs. Input Examples
y y y y y y y
The number of hours worked by the employee An employee¶s work responsibilities An employee¶s work duties The work commitment demonstrated by the employee An employee¶s loyalty An employee¶s flexibility such as undertaking tasks at short notice The support that the employee has provided to the organisation, colleagues and line managers
Output Examples
y y y y y y y y y
Salary Bonus Prizes Recognition of the employee¶s contribution Positive work appraisals Work promotions Pension Employer flexibility Annual leave
Adam¶s stated that if an employee believes that their work outputs are not equal or greater than their inputs then the employee will become de-motivated. Adams¶ theory includes the assertion that when an employee is assessing whether the outputs they receive are fair the employee will often compare their colleague¶s work inputs and outputs with their own. The comparison will often be made with an employee at a similar level in the organisation to the employee.
Elton Mayo¶s Hawthorn experiments Elton Mayo¶s team conducted a number of experiments involving six female workers. These experiments are often referred to as the Hawthorne experiments or Hawthorne studies as they took place at The Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company in Chicago. Over the course of five years, Mayo¶s team altered the female worker¶s working conditions and then monitored how the working conditions affected the workers morale and productivity. The changes in working conditions included changes in working hours, rest brakes, lighting, humidity, and temperature. The changes were explained to the workers prior to implementation. At the end of the five year period, the female worker¶s working conditions, reverted back to the conditions before the experiment began. Unexpectedly the workers morale and productivity rose to levels higher than before and during the experiments. The combination of results during and after the experiment (ie the increase in the workers productivity when they were returned to their original working conditions) led Mayo to conclude that workers were motivated by psychological conditions more than physical working condition. He also concluded that workers were motivated by more than self interest and instead the following applied:
y
There is an unwritten understanding between the worker and employer regarding what is expected from them; Mayo called this the psychological contract.
y
A worker¶s motivation can be increased by showing an interest in them. Mayo classified studying the workers (through the experiments) as showing an interest in the workers.
y
Work is a group activity, team work can increase a worker¶s motivation as it allows people to form strong working relationships and increases trust between the workers. Work groups are created formally by the employer but also occur informally. Both informal and formal groups should be used to increase productivity as informal groups influence the worker¶s habits and attitudes.
y
Workers are motivated by the social aspect of work, as demonstrated by the female workers socialising during and outside work and the subsequent increase in motivation.
y
Workers are motivated by recognition, security and a sense of belonging.
y
The communication between workers and management influences workers¶ morale and productivity. Workers are motivated through a good working relationship with management.
Frederick Herzberg explored the question ³What do people want from their jobs´. He did this through asking various people about situations and events at work, when they felt exceptionally good or bad about their jobs. Herzberg¶s collection of information revealed that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, whilst extrinsic factors created job dissatisfaction. In other words when people felt satisfied and happy at work the conditions present were directly affecting their inner feelings and self esteem. Yet dissatisfaction was created by the job environment people worked in and the interactions within that environment. This distinction is clearly illustrated in the table below.
Management Concepts
Motivators creating job satisfaction
y y
Hygiene factors creating job dissatisfaction
y y
Achievement Recognition
Supervision Company Policy
y y y y
Work Itself Responsibility Advancement Growth
y y y y y y y y
Relationship with Supervisor Working Conditions Salary Relationship with Peers Personal Life Relationship with Subordinates Status Security
As job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are controlled by different factors Herzberg concluded that job satisfaction was not the opposite of job dissatisfaction. In contrast to the accepted theories at the time, Herzberg believed that job satisfaction was a distinct and separate entity from job dissatisfaction. In other words the complete removal of job dissatisfaction will not cause an employee to feel job satisfaction. Similarly job satisfaction does not necessarily eradicate all elements of job dissatisfaction. Herzberg therefore decided that the opposite of job dissatisfaction was simply a work environment containing ³no dissatisfaction´ and the opposite of job satisfaction was an employee feeling ³no satisfaction´. As extrinsic factors do not motivate employees Herzberg referred to these as Hygiene factors and intrinsic factors were called motivators for obvious reasons. From the 1960s to the 1980¶s Herzberg¶s theory of motivators and hygiene factors was widely popular. After that other studies labelled it as simplistic but its principles can still be found within other motivation theories.
Abraham Maslow between 1943-1954 developed his 'Hierarchy of needs' motivation theory. It is probably the most popular and most read motivation theory. His theory suggests that within each person their is a hierarchy of needs and the individual must satisfy each level before they move onto the next. There are five hierarchical levels. These are:
y y y y y
Physiological needs: Food, shelter, sexual satisfaction i.e those needs needed for basic survival. Safety needs: The need to feel safe within your environment. Also refers to emotional and physical safety. Social Needs: The need for love, friendship and belongingness Esteem needs: The need for self respect, status and recognition from others. Self actualisation: The point of reaching ones full potential. Are you capable at excelling yourself?
Diagram: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
So an individual will need to satisfy their most basic need before they can move onto the next. Only when that individual knows that they have met their physiological needs will they move onto their safety needs. Maslow suggests that if you wanted to motivate an individual you will need to know where within the hierarchy they are placed. So how would an organisation use Maslows theory? Application of Maslow's theory within the workplace. Maslows level What the organisation could do Safe working condition Work social events Feedback via appraisal, generally praising staff
Physiological Competitive salary Safety Social Esteem
Self actualisation
Allocating more challenging and stimulating responsibilities
There are however problems with Maslows theory. Firstly it is difficult to tell at what level a person is at within their hierarchy and when that level has been satisfied. Also there is little statistical evidence to prove that this theory actually works. Neverless, it is popular and does have some weight behind it.
braham Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs model in 1940-50s USA, and the Hierarchy of Needs theory remains valid today for understanding human motivation, management training, and personal development. Indeed, Maslow's ideas surrounding the Hierarchy of Needs concerning the responsibility of employers to provide a workplace environment that encourages and enables employees to fulfil their own unique potential (self-actualization) are today more relevant than ever. Abraham Maslow's book Motivation and Personality, published in 1954 (second edition 1970) introduced the Hierarchy of Needs, and Maslow extended his ideas in other work, notably his later book Toward A Psychology Of Being, a significant and relevant commentary, which has been revised in recent times by Richard Lowry, who is in his own right a leading academic in the field of motivational psychology... Abraham Maslow was born in New York in 1908 and died in 1970, although various publications appear in Maslow's name in later years. Maslow's PhD in psychology in 1934 at the University of Wisconsin formed the basis of his motivational research, initially studying rhesus monkeys. Maslow later moved to New York's Brooklyn College. The Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs five-stage model below (structure and terminology - not the precise pyramid diagram itself) is clearly and directly attributable to Maslow; later versions of the theory with added motivational stages are not so clearly attributable to Maslow. These extended models have instead been inferred by others from Maslow's work. Specifically Maslow refers to the needs Cognitive, Aesthetic and Transcendence (subsequently shown as distinct needs levels in some interpretations of his theory) as additional aspects of motivation, but not as distinct levels in the Hierarchy of Needs. Where Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is shown with more than five levels these models have been extended through interpretation of Maslow's work by other people. These augmented models and diagrams are shown as the adapted seven and eight-stage Hierarchy of Needs pyramid diagrams and models below. There have been very many interpretations of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs in the form of pyramid diagrams. The diagrams on this page are my own interpretations and are not offered as Maslow's
original work. Interestingly in Maslow's book Motivation and Personality, which first introduced the Hierarchy of Needs, there is not a pyramid to be seen. Free Hierarchy of Needs diagrams in pdf and doc formats similar to the image below are available from this page. (N.B. The word Actualization/Actualisation can be spelt either way. Z is preferred in American English. S is preferred in UK English. Both forms are used in this page to enable keyword searching for either spelling via search engines.)
maslow's hierarchy of needs Each of us is motivated by needs. Our most basic needs are inborn, having evolved over tens of thousands of years. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs helps to explain how these needs motivate us all. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs states that we must satisfy each need in turn, starting with the first, which deals with the most obvious needs for survival itself. Only when the lower order needs of physical and emotional well-being are satisfied are we concerned with the higher order needs of influence and personal development. Conversely, if the things that satisfy our lower order needs are swept away, we are no longer concerned about the maintenance of our higher order needs. Maslow's original Hierarchy of Needs model was developed between 1943-1954, and first widely published in Motivation and Personality in 1954. At this time the Hierarchy of Needs model comprised five needs. This original version remains for most people the definitive Hierarchy of Needs.
maslow's hierarchy of needs - free pdf diagram and free doc diagram 1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. 3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. 4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige,
managerial responsibility, etc. 5. Self-Actualization needs - realising personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.
This is the definitive and original Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. While Maslow referred to various additional aspects of motivation, he expressed the Hierarchy of Needs in these five clear stages. Here is a quick simple self-test based on the original Maslow's 5-level Hierarchy of Needs. It's not a scientific or validated instrument - merely a quick indicator, which can be used for self-awareness, discussion, etc.
1970s adapted hierarchy of needs model, including cognitive and aesthetic needs - free pdf diagram and free doc diagram 1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. 3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. 4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc. 5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc. 6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. 7. Self-Actualization needs - realising personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.
N.B. Although Maslow referred to additional aspects of motivation, 'Cognitive' and 'Aesthetic', he did not include them as levels or stages within his own expression of the Hierarchy of Needs.
1990s adapted hierarchy of needs including transcendence needs - free diagram and free doc diagram 1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. 3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. 4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc. 5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc. 6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. 7. Self-Actualization needs - realising personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. 8. Transcendence needs - helping others to achieve self actualization.
N.B. Although Maslow referred to additional aspects of motivation, 'Cognitive', 'Aesthetic', and 'Transcendence', he did not include any of these as additional stages in the Hierarchy of Needs. Here is a quick self-test based on the extended 8-level Hierarchy of Needs. Like the 5-level Hierarchy of Needs self-test it is not a scientific or validated instrument - merely a quick indicator for helping selfawareness, discussion, etc.
what hierarchy of needs model is most valid? Abraham Maslow created the original five level Hierarchy of Needs model, and for many this remains entirely adequate for its purpose. The seven and eight level 'hierarchy of needs' models are later adaptations by others, based on Maslow's work. Arguably, the original five-level model includes the later additional sixth, seventh and eighth ('Cognitive', 'Aesthetic', and 'Transcendence') levels within the original 'Self-Actualization' level 5, since each one of the 'new' motivators concerns an area of selfdevelopment and self-fulfilment that is rooted in self-actualization 'growth', and is distinctly different to any of the previous 1-4 level 'deficiency' motivators. For many people, self-actualizing commonly involves each and every one of the newly added drivers. As such, the original five-level Hierarchy of Needs model remains a definitive classical representation of human motivation; and the later adaptations perhaps serve best to illustrate aspects of self-actualization.
Maslow said that needs must be satisfied in the given order. Aims and drive always shift to next higher order needs. Levels 1 to 4 are deficiency motivators; level 5, and by implication 6 to 8, are growth motivators and relatively rarely found. The thwarting of needs is usually a cause of stress, and is particularly so at level 4. Examples in use: You can't motivate someone to achieve their sales target (level 4) when they're having problems with their marriage (level 3). You can't expect someone to work as a team member (level 3) when they're having their house repossessed (level 2).
maslow's self-actualizing characteristics keen sense of reality - aware of real situations - objective judgement, rather than subjective see problems in terms of challenges and situations requiring solutions, rather than see problems as personal complaints or excuses need for privacy and comfortable being alone reliant on own experiences and judgement - independent - not reliant on culture and environment to form opinions and views not susceptible to social pressures - non-conformist democratic, fair and non-discriminating - embracing and enjoying all cultures, races and individual styles socially compassionate - possessing humanity accepting others as they are and not trying to change people comfortable with oneself - despite any unconventional tendencies a few close intimate friends rather than many surface relationships sense of humour directed at oneself or the human condition, rather than at the expense of others spontaneous and natural - true to oneself, rather than being how others want excited and interested in everything, even ordinary things creative, inventive and original seek peak experiences that leave a lasting impression See the Maslow interviews DVDs - especially Maslow and Self-Actualization to understand the subject more fully. These films were made in 1968 and are helpful on several levels, and both wonderful teaching and learning aids. See also the newer Maslow MP3 talks series.
These materials also help to illustrate the far-reaching and visionary nature of Maslow's thinking, several decades ago. The above materials are published by Maurice Bassett on behalf of the estate of Abraham Maslow. Businessballs takes no commission and recommends them simply because they are wonderful materials for all students and followers of Maslow's very special work.
maslow's hierarchy of needs in advertising To help with training of Maslow's theory look for Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs motivators in advertising. This is a great basis for Maslow and motivation training exercises: Biological and Physiological needs - wife/child-abuse help-lines, social security benefits, Samaritans, roadside recovery. Safety needs - home security products (alarms, etc), house an contents insurance, life assurance, schools. Belongingness and Love needs - dating and match-making services, chat-lines, clubs and membership societies, Macdonalds, 'family' themes like the old style Oxo stock cube ads. Esteem needs - cosmetics, fast cars, home improvements, furniture, fashion clothes, drinks, lifestyle products and services. Self-Actualization needs - Open University, and that's about it; little else in mainstream media because only 2% of population are self-actualizers, so they don't constitute a very big part of the mainstream market. You can view and download free Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs diagrams, and two free Hierarchy of Needs self-tests, based on the original Maslow's five-stage model and later adapted eight-stage model, ideal for training, presentations and project work, at the businessballs free online resources section. Free diagrams include: Pyramid diagram based on Maslow's original five-level Hierarchy of Needs (1954). Adapted seven-level Hierarchy of Needs diagram (which seems to have first appeared in the 1970s after Maslow's death). Adapted eight-level Hierarchy of Needs diagram (appearing later, seemingly 1990s).
interpreting behaviour according to maslow's hierarchy of needs Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is an excellent model for understanding human motivation, but it is a broad concept. If you are puzzled as to how to relate given behaviour to the Hierarchy it could be that
your definition of the behaviour needs refining. For example, 'where does 'doing things for fun' fit into the model? The answer is that it can't until you define 'doing things for fun' more accurately. You'd need to define more precisely each given situation where a person is 'doing things for fun' in order to analyse motivation according to Maslow's Hierarchy, since the 'fun' activity motive can potentially be part any of the five original Maslow needs. Understanding whether striving to achieve a particular need or aim is 'fun' can provide a helpful basis for identifying a Maslow driver within a given behaviour, and thereby to assess where a particular behaviour fits into the model: Biological - health, fitness, energising mind and body, etc. Safety - order and structure needs met for example by some heavily organised, structural activity Belongingness - team sport, club 'family' and relationships Esteem - competition, achievement, recognition Self-Actualization drivers - challenge, new experiences, love of art, nature, etc. However in order to relate a particular 'doing it for fun' behaviour the Hierarchy of Needs we need to consider what makes it 'fun' (i.e., rewarding) for the person. If a behaviour is 'for fun', then consider what makes it 'fun' for the person - is the 'fun' rooted in 'belongingness', or is it from 'recognition', i.e., 'esteem'. Or is the fun at a deeper level, from the sense of self-fulfilment, i.e., 'self-actualization'. Apply this approach to any behaviour that doesn't immediately fit the model, and it will help you to see where it does fit. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs will be a blunt instrument if used as such. The way you use the Hierarchy of Needs determines the subtlety and sophistication of the model. For example: the common broad-brush interpretation of Maslow's famous theory suggests that that once a need is satisfied the person moves onto the next, and to an extent this is entirely correct. However an overly rigid application of this interpretation will produce a rigid analysis, and people and motivation are more complex. So while it is broadly true that people move up (or down) the hierarchy, depending what's happening to them in their lives, it is also true that most people's motivational 'set' at any time comprises elements of all of the motivational drivers. For example, self-actualizers (level 5 original model) are mainly focused on self-actualizing but are still motivated to eat (level 1) and socialise (level 3). Similarly, homeless folk whose main focus is feeding themselves (level 1) and finding shelter for the night (level 2) can also be, albeit to a lesser extent, still concerned with social relationships (level 3), how their friends perceive them (level 4), and even the meaning of life (level 5 - original model). Like any simple model, Maslow's theory not a fully responsive system - it's a guide which requires some interpretation and thought, given which, it remains extremely useful and applicable for understanding, explaining and handling many human behaviour situations.
maslow's hierarchy of needs and helping others There are certainly some behaviours that are quite tricky to relate to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. For example: Normally, we would consider that selflessly helping others, as a form of personal growth motivation, would be found as part of self-actualisation, or perhaps even 'transcendence' (if you subscribe to the extended hierarchy). So how can we explain the examples of people who seem to be far short of self-actualising, and yet are still able to help others in a meaningful and unselfish sense? Interestingly this concept seems to be used increasingly as an effective way to help people deal with depression, low self-esteem, poor life circumstances, etc., and it almost turns the essential Maslow model on its head: that is, by helping others, a person helps themselves to improve and develop too. The principle has also been applied quite recently to developing disaffected school-children, whom, as part of their own development, have been encouraged and enabled to 'teach' other younger children (which can arguably be interpreted as their acting at a self-actualising level - selflessly helping others). The disaffected children, theoretically striving to belong and be accepted (level 3 - belongingness) were actually remarkably good at helping other children, despite their own negative feelings and issues. Under certain circumstances, a person striving to satisfy their needs at level 3 - belongingness, seems able to self-actualise - level 5 (and perhaps beyond, into 'transcendence') by selflessly helping others, and at the same time begins to satisfy their own needs for belongingness and self-esteem. Such examples demonstrate the need for careful interpretation and application of the Maslow model. The Hierarchy of Needs is not a catch-all, but it does remain a wonderfully useful framework for analysing and trying to understand the subtleties - as well as the broader aspects - of human behaviour and growth.
self-actualisation, employees and organisations Maslow's work and ideas extend far beyond the Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow's concept of self-actualisation relates directly to the present day challenges and opportunities for employers and organisations - to provide real meaning, purpose and true personal development for
their employees. For life - not just for work. Maslow saw these issues fifty years ago: the fact that employees have a basic human need and a right to strive for self-actualisation, just as much as the corporate directors and owners do. Increasingly, the successful organisations and employers will be those who genuinely care about, understand, encourage and enable their people's personal growth towards self-actualisation - way beyond traditional work-related training and development, and of course way beyond old-style X-Theory management autocracy, which still forms the basis of much organised employment today. The best modern employers and organisations are beginning to learn at last: that sustainable success is built on a serious and compassionate commitment to helping people identify, pursue and reach their own personal unique potential. When people grow as people, they automatically become more effective and valuable as employees. In fact virtually all personal growth, whether in a hobby, a special talent or interest, or a new experience, produces new skills, attributes, behaviours and wisdom that is directly transferable to any sort of job role. The best modern employers recognise this and as such offer development support to their staff in any direction whatsoever that the person seeks to grow and become more fulfilled.
classic 1968 maslow interviews now on dvd Both filmed in 1968, after Maslow's heart attack, and obviously prior to his death in 1970, these superb Maslow DVDs show Dr Maslow being interviewed, respectively by Dr Everett Shostrom, and also interestingly, Warren Bennis. Both films - available here - were made in 1968 and were remastered in black and white in 2007. The remarkable content, and the 1960s styling and production add to the seductive and powerful effect of these films, which stems chiefly from Maslow's brilliant thinking and natural charismatic presence. Being Abraham Maslow is half an hour long, and features Maslow talking to Warren Bennis about his life, his views of the world and his work. It is utterly compelling and shows Maslow's staggering perception of the issues which challenge society and humankind today - and this was recorded in 1968. The film, basically irresistible throughout, includes some marvelous moments, such as Maslow's questioning observation as to "...how good a human nature does society permit?...", and the visionary statement that: "...The Good Society now has to be one world - it has to be one world or it won't work nationalism is dead - it just doesn't know it yet..."
He said this in 1968 and still today our leaders don't see it. Maslow and Self-Actualization is an hour long, in two parts, in which Maslow is interviewed by Dr Everett Shostrom about Self-Actualization, in which Shostrom uses references and quotes extracts from Maslow's book Motivation and Personality, and Maslow explains and develops the themes. The structure is excellent - ideal for teaching and training. Self-Actualization is presented by Maslow through a series of answers, working through the concept in four sections: honesty, awareness, freedom and trust. Maslow brings these headings to life, conveying some very complex intangible ideas - such as objectivity, detachment, maturity, love, acceptance, modesty and grace - in the most understandable way. Personally this video is one of the most powerful things I've ever seen. The film can be used as a teaching aid, and/or as the presenter suggests, to help people understand SelfActualization as goals or values to aspire to: "...ideas for living and being, fully functioning to one's full capacity..." For anyone teaching or studying motivation, psychology, Maslow, and related areas - or simply interested in living a fulfilled and good life - these films will be fascinating, and for some people deeply inspirational too. Both films are available here. In terms of format/compatibility, these US-made films wouldn't play on my (cheap) UK DVD player, but they ran happily on my (cheap) UK PC. The above dvd materials are published by Maurice Bassett on behalf of the estate of Abraham Maslow.
additional maslow talks now on mp3 In August 2009 further exciting Maslow material became available for download in mp3 format after extensive work by publisher Maurice Bassett. Volumes One and Two include a total of 28 and a half hours of Abraham Maslow's talks and workshops at the Esalen Institute, Big Sur, California, from the mid and late-1960s. The materials comprise: Volume One: Self-Actualization (1 mp3 file, total playing time 1 hour) Psychology and Religious Awareness (1 mp3 file, total playing time 1 hour) The Aims of Education (1 mp3 file, total playing time 1 hour) The B-language Workshop (5 mp3 files, total playing time 5 hours, 35 minutes)
Weekend with Maslow (9 mp3 files, total playing time 4 hours, 25 minutes) Volume Two: The Eupsychian Ethic (6 mp3 files, total playing time 5 hours, 45 minutes) The Farther Reaches of Human Nature (10 mp3 files, total playing time 9 hours, 45 minutes) Samples and the entire recordings are available at www.abrahammaslow.com/audio.html The mp3 materials above are published by Maurice Bassett on behalf of the estate of Abraham Maslow.
maslow's modern relevance When you read Maslow's work, and particularly when you hear him speak about it, the relevance of his thinking to our modern world of work and management is astounding. His explanations and interpretations of the human condition remain fundamentally helpful in understanding and addressing all sorts of social and behavioural questions - forty or fifty years after his death. You will particularly see great significance of his ideas in relation to modern challenges for work such as in the Psychological Contract and leadership ethics, and even extending to globalization and society. Maslow is obviously most famous for his Hierarchy of Needs theory, rightly so, because it is a wonderfully simple and elegant model for understanding so many aspects of human motivation, especially in the workplace. The simplicity of the model however tends to limit appreciation of Maslow's vision and humanity, which still today are remarkably penetrating and sensitive. Read more:http://edu4adults.blogspot.com/2010/11/abraham-maslows-hierarchy-ofneeds.html#ixzz14lDp8AnO
Douglas McGregor¶s theory of motivation or XY theory proposes that organisations follow one of two approaches in their management of people. Below is a summary of each theory. Theory X This theory is also referred to as ³the authoritarian management style´, as it states that the average person needs to be coerced (even threatened with punishment), into working towards organisational objectives.
y y y y
The average employee does not like work and will attempt to avoid it. As employees are lazy they do not want responsibility and have no ambition. Individuals prefer to be directed and want security above everything else. Individuals need to be closely supervised and controlled.
Theory Y Also known as ³the participative management style´, a theory Y organisation¶s view of people is the opposite of an organisation applying theory X.
y y y y y y
The average employee likes work, and is self-motivated. Employees can learn to not only accept but seek greater responsibility. Individuals are ambitious not lazy, and work is as natural as rest and play. Individuals exercise self control and self-direction to achieve objectives that they are committed to. Threats of punishment are unnecessary. The rewards of achievement generate commitment from employees. If individuals are given freedom there is opportunity to increase productivity.
Managers applying theory Y believe that if employees are given the opportunity, they will develop a desire to be imaginative and creative at work. They will therefore try and remove obstacles that prevent employees from realising their potential. They believe that negative attitudes such as avoidance of responsibility are caused by experience and are not ³inherent characteristics´. Therefore by creating the positive experiences and conditions such negatives can be banished. McGregor¶s theory of X and Y represents two extremes, which probably aren¶t applied in full by today¶s organisations. However the theory has provided the foundations for today¶s management strategy and elements of it can be seen in other management evaluations
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