Description
meaning of monetary policy, general objectives of monetary policy, objectives of monetary policy in developing country, limitations of monetary policy in developing country, meaning of fiscal policy, general objectives of fiscal policy, objectives of fiscal policy in developing country, limitations of fiscal policy in developing countr
Monetary and Fiscal Policies in Developing Countries
The ultimate objective of the developing countries is to attain the highest level of economic growth. These countries possess enormous natural and manpower resources, but most of these resources are unutilized or under utilized. The process of economic development has started with a low keynote and the real rate of economic growth has been far below the targeted rate of growth. The main obstacles have been the paucity of capital resource, technical knowhow, and lack of well-defined order of priorities. The State in the recent past has started taking an active and keen interest in the developmental activities, but it has attained limited success. The State is equipped with monetary and fiscal policies to keep an over-all control over the economy. We shall not examine the role, efficacy, and limitations of monetary and fiscal policies in the developing countries.
MEANING OF MONETARY POLICY Monetary policy, generally, refers to that policy of the central bank which are adapted to control and regulate the supply of money, the cost and availability of credit in a country. Monetary policy consists of those monetary decisions and measures the aim of which is to influence the monetary system. According to Paul Einzig, an ideal monetary policy may be defined as an effort to minimize the disadvantages and increase the advantages, resulting from the existence and operation of a monetary system. Broadly speaking, by monetary policy is meant the policy pursued by the central bank of a country for administering and controlling country’s money supply including currency and demand deposits and managing the foreign exchange rates. The central bank of a country through its monetary policy manipulates the money supply, credit, government expenditure, and rates of interest in such a manner so that the monetary system may be benefited to the maximum extent. GENERAL OBJECTIVES OF MONETARY POLICY Economists have conflicting and divergent views as regard the objectives of monetary policy. Economists have from time to time mentioned different objectives of the monetary policy. In fact the objectives of monetary policy change according to the changes in the business activities and level of economic development. Broadly speaking, the following are the main objectives of monetary policy: 1. Stability of Exchange Rates Most of the economics of the world today are open economies. These economies have maintained trade relations with other countries. International trade transactions take place on the basis of a fixed rate of exchange. Any change in the equilibrium rate of exchange will have deep repercussions on the balance of payments of a country. It is, therefore, essential to maintain stability in the exchange rates.
In gold standard, the exchange rate stability was maintained through the automatic working of the system. Free movement of gold from one country to another helped in correcting the disequilibrium in the balance of payments, whenever and wherever it arose. But, the country had to sacrifice the domestic price stability for the sake of stability in exchange rates. The gold standard was finally abandoned after World War I, and since then the objective of stability of exchange rates has lost its significance. However, in paper currency standard, stability of exchange rates is maintained through the device of devaluation or overvaluation of the currency, as the case may be. Now, in most of the countries the monetary policy is directed towards achieving economic stability. 2. Price Stability Economists like Gustav Cassel and Keynes argue that domestic price stability should be the main objective of central bank’s monetary policy. Violent fluctuations in prices create the problem of inflation and deflation which cause enormous hardships to consumers, wage-earners and other factor-owners. Both post-war inflation and great depression of 30s have convinced the economists that the objective of monetary policy should be the stabilization of the domestic price level even if this stabilization may mean destabilization of the exchange rates. The objective of price stability has been criticized on several grounds. Modern economists believe that the objective of monetary policy should not be restricted only to the price stability but to the stabilization of the economic activity at full employment level in the economy. Moreover, the term ‘price stability’ is very vague. Price level may mean wholesale prices, retail prices, labor prices, and so on. The stabilization of general price level is compatible with rising or falling of individual prices. Above all, the objective of price stability ignores the realistic requirements of a dynamic society. Thus, on account of the aforesaid limitations the objective of price stability has lost its significance in present times. It is now resorted to along with the currently more important objective, i.e. full employment. 3. Neutrality of Money Prof. Hayek and some other economists belonging to Austrian School have emphasized upon the neutrality of money as the objective of monetary policy. The neutral money policy is based upon the assumption that money should only play the role of medium of exchange and should not work as a measure of value. In other words, the money supply should be regulated in such a manner that it may not affect the output, price, employment, etc. It is only by keeping the supply of money as constant that it can play neutral role. It is however wrong to assume that by keeping the supply of money as constant the fluctuations in the price level can be avoided. Even if the money supply remains unchanged, but if velocity of circulation increases or decreases, it will definitely disturb the price level. Thus, it is clear that the monetary authority cannot make the money neutral just by keeping its supply unchanged.
4. Full Employment Full employment refers to a situation in which all those who are able and willing to work at he prevailing rates of wages get employment opportunities. Full employment, however, does not mean complete or total employment. Even at full employment level 2% to 5% resources may remain unemployed. Various forms of unemployment like involuntary unemployment, seasonal unemployment, frictional unemployment and structural unemployment may exist at full employment level. It may not be very difficult for most countries to achieve the level of full employment but the real problem is how to maintain it in the long run. Periodical fluctuations in the business activities may cause unemployment in the economic system. The monetary policy, therefore, should be directed to ensure that current investment exceeds current saving and this can be done by creation of credit money or by the creation of additional bank deposits or by higher velocity of circulation. When full employment is achieved, efforts should be made to maintain equality between saving and investment at the full employment level. According to Crowther, “the obvious objective of the monetary policy of a country should be to attain equilibrium between saving and investment at the point of full employment.” 5. Economic Growth with Stability While for most of the developed countries the objective of monetary policy is to maintain equality between saving and investment at full employment level, the monetary policy in the undeveloped countries is directed towards achieving high rate of economic growth. Monetary authority in an underdeveloped economy can use different tools to promote economic growth. Economic growth refers to a process whereby an economy’s real national income increases over a long period of time. By increase in real national income we mean more availability of goods and services in a country during a given period of time. Thus, economic growth means the transformation of society of a country from a state of under development to a high level of economic achievement. The main hindrance in economic growth is the lack of investment activities in the underdeveloped countries. Monetary policy can play a very crucial role in promoting the investment activities. Monetary policy can also discourage investment in less-productive or lessuseful activities. In other words, monetary policy may be a mixture of ‘cheap’ and ‘tight’ monetary management, so as to encourage and discourage investment according to the requirement, so as to encourage and discourage investment according to the requirements of business activities. Besides, the monetary policy should also aim at maintaining stability in the economy. Monetary policy should be directed towards achieving high rate of growth over a long period of time. OBJECTIVES OF MONETARY POLICY IN A DEVELOPING ECONOMY Prof. Ragnar Nurkse defines underdeveloped countries as “those which compared with the advanced countries are under-equipped with capital in relation to their population and natural resources.” Underdeveloped countries do posses plenty of natural and manpower resources but
they are unutilized or underutilized. Most of the underdeveloped countries suffer from the problems of low level of real per capita income, business fluctuations, price instability, lack of credit facilities, lack of capital formation, balance of payments disequilibrium, etc. An effective and proper monetary policy will not only provide adequate financial resources for economic development but also help the underdeveloped countries to set up and accelerate the rate of output, employment and income. It may also help these countries in containing inflationary pressures and achieving balance of payment equilibrium. Following are the main objectives of monetary policy in a developing economy: 1. Inducement to Saving Capital formation which is a prerequisite to economic growth depends upon saving. Monetary policy in an underdeveloped country helps in promoting savings, their mobilization, and their investment in productive activities. In order to induce savings, the monetary authority has to offer various incentives to the savers in the form of high rate of interest, safety of deposits, etc. 2. Investment of Savings According to Prof. Meier and Prof. Baldwin, “the problem of inadequate savings cannot be solved merely by creating new institutions, but the problem can be solved only by saving profitable investment of savings.” The objective of economic growth cannot be achieved unless and until the savings are utilized in productive investment activities. The rate of investment is very low in underdeveloped countries on account of the absence of profitable productive activities, lack of entrepreneurial ability and low marginal efficiency of capital. The central bank in such a situation can resort to cheap money policy to promote investment activities. 3. Appropriate Policy as regard to Rate of Interest The structure of the rate of interest is generally not conductive to economic growth in underdeveloped countries—the rates of interest do not only differ according to different timeschedules but these also differ in different regions and business activities. High rate of interest, as they are generally witnessed in underdeveloped countries, discourage both public and private investment. The monetary authority, therefore, is required to formulate such a policy as regards the rate of interest which may induce the investors to go in for more loans and advances from the commercial banks and other financial institutions. 4. Maintenance and Monetary Equilibrium Monetary policy in an underdeveloped country should be directed towards achieving equality between demand for money and supply of money. In the initial stages of economic development there is need to expand credit facilities but once a certain level of growth is achieved credit restrictions of various kinds must be imposed by the central bank. In practice, however, it is very difficult to say as to when the monetary authority should impose credit restrictions to control the supply of money.
5. To make Balance of Payment Favorable Most of the underdeveloped countries have to import capital goods, machinery, equipments, technical know-how, etc. in the initial stage of their development. Consequently, their imports exceed the exports and balance of payments becomes unfavorable. Monetary policy should be directed towards maintaining stability in exchange rates and removing disequilibrium in the balance of payments. 6. Price Stability Internal price stability is an important objective of monetary policy in underdeveloped countries. Violent fluctuations in the internal price level not only disrupt the smooth working of an economy but these also lead to insecurity and social injustice. While inflation creates enormous hardships for the wage earners and consumers, deflation proves disastrous for both entrepreneurs and wage-earners. Increasing cost of labor and material also increases the cost of various projects, which adversely affect the rate of economic growth. It should be noted that the effects of price instability are always cumulative in character. Therefore, monetary authority in a developing country should pursue such a monetary policy which may help in maintaining price stability over a long period so that the development activities may go uninterrupted. Different monetary measures can be a adopted for inflationary and deflationary conditions. If inflationary pressures are mounting in the economy, the monetary authority can resort to stringent monetary action, so as to restrict the supply of money and credit in the country. For example, measures like high bank rate, selling of government securities, raising the reserve ratio, raising the margin requirement, etc., can be adopted to contain inflation. Likewise, a different set of measures like lowering the bank rate, purchasing government securities in open market, lowering reserve ratio, reducing the margin requirements, etc., can be adopted to control deflation. Thus the monetary authority in a developing economy can follow the policy of monetary expansion and monetary contraction to stabilize the internal price level. We can, therefore, conclude that the ultimate objective of monetary policy in the developing countries is to achieve sustained economic growth with stability. LIMITATIONS OF MONETARY POLICY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Monetary policy can play a very crucial and significant role in the economic development of developing countries. However, the success of the monetary policy is limited by certain factors; the more important amongst these are as follows:
1. Underdeveloped Monetary and Capital Market Most of the developing countries do not have a well-developed and fully-organized money and capital market. In the absence of such developed money markets it is not possible to effectively implement the various credit control policies by the central bank. 2. Lack of Integrated Structure of Rate of Interest In the developing countries a sizable proportion of the total financial resources come from the unorganized banking sector. In the absence of an integrated and well-organized structure of rate of interest the central bank fails to influence the market rate of interest through changes in the bank rate. In fact, any increase or decrease in the bank rate must be reflected in the form of increased or decreased market rate of interest, but it does not happen in the developing countries. 3. Banking Habits of the People In the developing countries most of the exchange transactions are conducted with the help of money. People seldom use credit instruments to perform exchange transactions. It is for this reason that the credit control policy of the central bank does not have desired effect on the business activities. 4. Lack of Co-operation by the Commercial Bank Commercial banks are the institutions which help in the implementation of the monetary policy pursued by the central bank. In developing countries, however, the commercial banks fail to provide sufficient co-operation to the central bank and in some cases they also flout the directives given by the central bank. Monetary policy cannot succeed unless and until there is a proper coordination and co-operation between the central bank and commercial banks. 5. Literacy and Social Obstacles Most of the developing countries suffer from mass illiteracy, superstitions, dogmatism and other social evils. People do not understand the significance of banking institutions. Neither they keep their deposits with the banks, nor do they avail the opportunities of loans and advances from the banks. The success of monetary policy depends upon the widespread banking institutions, banking habits of the people, adequate development of credit facilities, adequate quantity of bank deposits, entrepreneurial ability, etc. In brief, the monetary policy in a developing country suffers from several limitations. The monetary authority on the one hand, has to create conditions whereby the banking and financial institutions may flourish, and, on the other hand, it has to exercise various restrictions and controls to regulate the supply of currency and credit in economy. The monetary authority has also to manipulate the credit policy in such a way as to step up saving and investment activities for accelerating the rate of economic growth.
MEANING OF FISCAL POLICY
Monetary policy alone cannot achieve the objectives of sustained economic growth, stability and social justice in a developing economy. It is, therefore, essential to supplement the monetary policy by an effective fiscal policy. Monetary and fiscal policies taken together can prove to be very effective in achieving the objective of growth with stability. Fiscal policy refers to government spending, taxing, borrowing and debt management. The government through its fiscal policy can influence the nature of economic activities in a country. According to Arthur Smithies, “Fiscal policy is a policy under which the government uses its expenditure and revenue programs to produce desirable effects and avoid undesirable effects on national income, production and employment.” Fiscal policy is used as a balancing device in the development of an economy. It refers to a process of shaping public taxation and public expenditure so as to help dampen the swings of the business cycle and to contribute towards the maintenance of a progressive, high employment economy free from excessive inflation or deflation. In other words, the modern fiscal policy is a technique to attain and maintain full employment by manipulating public expenditure and revenue in such a way as to keep equilibrium between effective demand and supply of goods and services at a particular time. There are mainly three constituents of the fiscal policy; these are: • Taxation policy, • Public expenditure policy, and • Public debt policy. All these constituents must work together to make the fiscal policy sound and effective. OBJECTIVE OF FISCAL POLICY IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY The objectives of fiscal policy differ from country to country according to the level of economic advancement. The role of fiscal policy in developed countries is to maintain the level of full employment, and to stabilize the rate of growth. While in an underdeveloped and developing economy, the role of fiscal policy is to accelerate the rate of capital formation and investment, change the pattern of investment, maintaining adequate supply of essential consumer goods on the one hand, and capital goods on the other, encourage the investment activities into socially desirable channels, maintaining price stability, and above all to make the distribution of national product just and equitable. These objectives of fiscal policy may come in conflict with one another. For example, the objective of high rate of economic growth may come in conflict with the distributive objective of the fiscal policy. Likewise, equitable distribution of income and wealth may adversely affect the inducement to produce more and thus retard the rate of economic growth. Thus, reconciliation has to be achieved between these conflicting objectives of fiscal policy. The main objectives of fiscal policy in a developing economy may be summarized as follows:
1. Mobilization of Resources: Most of the developing countries are caught in the ‘vicious circle of poverty.’ Prof. Higgins remarks that “the road to the growth of developing economies is paved with vicious circles.” Vicious circle of poverty refers to the circular constellation of forces, tending to act and react in such a way as to keep a poor country in a state of poverty. The most important objective of fiscal policy in a developing country should be to break this vicious circle of poverty. In order to achieve the above objective it is of utmost importance to increase the rate of investment and capital formation to accelerate the rate of growth. The government may resort to voluntary and forced saving to collect enough resources for investment. Growth breeds inflation. It is, therefore, essential to contain inflationary pressure in the economy through the curtailment of consumption expenditure and avoidance of unproductive investment. In developing countries, the level of per capital income is very low. As a result of this, adequate voluntary savings do not take place. The government, therefore, has to depend on taxation and public borrowings for raising revenue resources to finance development programs. 2. Acceleration of Economic Growth The aim of fiscal policy in a developing country is to accelerate the rate of growth so that the real national income of the country may increase in the long run. The government, through its taxation policy, public borrowings, deficit financing, etc., can provide incentives for saving and investment. The revenue resources collected through taxes should be invested in productive activities. Public expenditure should be diverted towards new and more useful development activities. The government may also grant tax relief and subsidies to the entrepreneurial class to boost the investment activities. Expansion of investment opportunities will certainly have a favorable effect on the level of business activities and rate of economic growth. 3. To Minimize the Inequalities of Income and Wealth To maintain the equality for income and wealth is not only an objective of economic growth, but a precondition to it. The government, therefore, should formulate its fiscal policy in such a manner so that it may reduce the inequalities of income and wealth. A mere increase in national income does not necessarily promote economic growth. It is all the more essential to reduce the existing inequalities of income and wealth. Extreme inequalities create political and social discontentment and generate instability in the economy. The following measures can be taken to reduce the inequalities of income and wealth: a) Progressive taxes may be imposed on the rich people so that the unnecessary consumption expenditure is curtailed. b) The poorer section of the society should be exempted from taxes. c) Luxury goods should be highly taxed and the proceeds so collected be diverted to productive investment activities. d) The government must spend more on the social services or on the items which benefit the poor people most.
e)
The fiscal policy must discourage unearned income.
4. To Increase Employment Opportunities One of the important objectives of fiscal policy in a developing country is to increase the employment was regarded as the most important objective under the influence of Keynes. Prof. Lewis is of the opinion that without providing full employment to the available manpower, the objective of economic growth will remain incomplete. The government through her fiscal policy can help in creating and promoting an atmosphere where people may get employment opportunities. The government in a developing country can resort to the following methods to raise the level of employment in the country. a) Public Spending. Public expenditure is the most potent weapon to fight against unemployment. The level of employment depends upon effective demand. The government can influence effective demand either by making more public expenditure or by resorting to such fiscal methods which may raise the level of private expenditure. The role of public expenditure becomes very significant during the period of depression when the private entrepreneurs are not keen to take up investment activities. The government can resort to ‘counter cyclical fiscal policy,’ which means that taxes and government spending be varied in an anti-cyclical direction; government spending being cut and taxes increased in the expanding phase of cycle, and government spending increased and taxes cut during the contraction phase. Increased government expenditure will open new job opportunities in the economy, which mean creation of demand for goods and services. b) Taxation Policy Taxation policy of the government can play a very important role in raising the level of employment in a developing economy. Unemployment is the result of low propensity to consume. The government can resort to redistributive tax policy to remove the deficiency in the propensity to consume. While the rich people have a low propensity to consume the poor have a very high propensity. The government can impose heavy takes on the rich people and the proceeds of these taxes may be distributed among the poor. Progressive taxes on the rich persons are socially desirable and economically advantageous. It should, however, be noted that the progressive taxes should not adversely affect the inducement to save and invest. Similarly, the money transferred from the rich to the poor should not be wasted on conspicuous expenditure but utilized for essential consumption expenditure and investment. c) Public Debt Policy Taxation policy does not prove to be very effective in the developing countries. People in these countries have a low level of per capita income, therefore, the scope of raising the tax rates or imposing fresh taxes is very limited. The government, therefore, has to resort to public borrowing to meet the various public expenditure obligations.
Public debt policy can be used to control the non-essential private consumption expenditure and to raise small savings for financing the development expenditure. The government for this purpose can issue debentures, bonds, etc., with attractive rates of interest to encourage people to purchase these titles. In case the government fails to collect sufficient finance through these methods, it may resort to compulsory savings of the public. We cannot, however, depend very much upon public debt policy for raising the level of employment in a developing economy. Public debt will prove effective only when these debts are collected through the idle balance with the people. If the public borrowing results in a fall in current consumption expenditure or is financed through curtailment in investment, it will not have desired effects on the level of employment and income. d) Price Stability As we have already discussed, a developing country does not posses adequate capital resources to finance developmental expenditure. The scope of taxes and public borrowing is also limited. Therefore, the government has to resort to deficit financing. In most of the developing countries deficits in the State’s budget are met by printing more currency notes. Increase in the supply of money creates inflationary conditions in the economy. Increasing prices do not only create hardships for the wageearners and customers, these also raise the cost of development projects. Though some economists have favored mild inflation as an incentive for capital formation, they have emphasized that large-scale inflation would retard economic growth. Thus, fiscal policy should aim at curbing inflationary pressure inherent in a developing economy. While the demand for consumer goods is very large, the supply remains relatively inelastic due to imperfections of markets and structural rigidities, which impede the supply of essential goods. Imbalance between the demand and the supply leads to inflationary pressure in the economy. On account of increase in the prices of essential goods, the demand for increase in the wage rates gains momentum, and thus the economy is caught in the vicious circle of high prices and high wages. Thus, a demand-pull inflation tends to generate cost-push inflation in a developing country. A package of fiscal measures can be adopted to contain inflation. Some of the important measures are given below: i. ii. iii. iv. v. The excess purchasing power of the people should be withdrawn through taxes, compulsory savings and public borrowings. Some anti-inflationary taxes like super tax, expenditure tax, taxes on luxury items etc., should be imposed. Besides liquid assets, cash-balances and capital assets should also be taxed. The policy must be progressive so that it may affect only that section of the society which is benefited most by inflation and does not harm the poorer section. Tax policy should encourage voluntary savings and control non-essential consumption expenditure.
Fiscal measures may have limited success to check inflationary pressures therefore, these must be supplemented with monetary measures to make them more effective. Though deflationary conditions are not so common in developing countries as inflationary conditions, but if such a situation occurs, an appropriate fiscal policy with emphasis on public expenditure can be followed to relieve the economy from the quagmire of depression. LIMITATIONS OF FISCAL POLICY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Fiscal policy has achieved great success in the developed countries, but in case of developing countries it suffers from several limitations. In fact, the nature and fundamental characteristics of the developing countries are responsible for partial success of the fiscal policy. Some of the limitations of the fiscal policy are as follows: 1. The tax structure in the developing countries is rigid and narrow. There is complete absence of conditions conducive to the growth of well-knit and integrated tax policy. 2. A sizable portion of the developing countries is non-monetized. As a result of this, the fiscal measures pursued by the government do not prove to be very effective and fruitful. 3. There is lack of statistical information as regard to the income, expenditure, saving, investment, employment, etc. Lack of adequate data makes it difficult for the public authorities to formulate a rational and effective fiscal policy. 4. Unless the people understand the implications of the fiscal policy and fully cooperate with the government in its implementation, it cannot succeed. In developing countries, majority of the people are illiterate, and they do not understand the implications of fiscal policy. 5. People are not conscious about their responsibilities and role in the developmental programs. There are cases of large-scale tax evasion with their impact on the fiscal policy as well. In the event of tax evasion the government may fail to collect the stipulated amount from the taxes. 6. Fiscal policy or for that matter any other policy requires an efficient administrative machinery to formulate and successfully implement the policy. In developing countries, different political groups and parties work on different lines and in different directions to achieve their political ends without bothering about the welfare of the people at large. The administration is corrupt and inefficient, and is incapable to execute the fiscal policy honestly and effectively. The entire above analysis brings into light the basic fact that inorder to be able to achieve the objective of price stability, full employment, rapid economic growth, promotion of social justice the government in developing countries should try to resort to a blend of both monetary policy and fiscal policy in tandem.
doc_688577122.doc
meaning of monetary policy, general objectives of monetary policy, objectives of monetary policy in developing country, limitations of monetary policy in developing country, meaning of fiscal policy, general objectives of fiscal policy, objectives of fiscal policy in developing country, limitations of fiscal policy in developing countr
Monetary and Fiscal Policies in Developing Countries
The ultimate objective of the developing countries is to attain the highest level of economic growth. These countries possess enormous natural and manpower resources, but most of these resources are unutilized or under utilized. The process of economic development has started with a low keynote and the real rate of economic growth has been far below the targeted rate of growth. The main obstacles have been the paucity of capital resource, technical knowhow, and lack of well-defined order of priorities. The State in the recent past has started taking an active and keen interest in the developmental activities, but it has attained limited success. The State is equipped with monetary and fiscal policies to keep an over-all control over the economy. We shall not examine the role, efficacy, and limitations of monetary and fiscal policies in the developing countries.
MEANING OF MONETARY POLICY Monetary policy, generally, refers to that policy of the central bank which are adapted to control and regulate the supply of money, the cost and availability of credit in a country. Monetary policy consists of those monetary decisions and measures the aim of which is to influence the monetary system. According to Paul Einzig, an ideal monetary policy may be defined as an effort to minimize the disadvantages and increase the advantages, resulting from the existence and operation of a monetary system. Broadly speaking, by monetary policy is meant the policy pursued by the central bank of a country for administering and controlling country’s money supply including currency and demand deposits and managing the foreign exchange rates. The central bank of a country through its monetary policy manipulates the money supply, credit, government expenditure, and rates of interest in such a manner so that the monetary system may be benefited to the maximum extent. GENERAL OBJECTIVES OF MONETARY POLICY Economists have conflicting and divergent views as regard the objectives of monetary policy. Economists have from time to time mentioned different objectives of the monetary policy. In fact the objectives of monetary policy change according to the changes in the business activities and level of economic development. Broadly speaking, the following are the main objectives of monetary policy: 1. Stability of Exchange Rates Most of the economics of the world today are open economies. These economies have maintained trade relations with other countries. International trade transactions take place on the basis of a fixed rate of exchange. Any change in the equilibrium rate of exchange will have deep repercussions on the balance of payments of a country. It is, therefore, essential to maintain stability in the exchange rates.
In gold standard, the exchange rate stability was maintained through the automatic working of the system. Free movement of gold from one country to another helped in correcting the disequilibrium in the balance of payments, whenever and wherever it arose. But, the country had to sacrifice the domestic price stability for the sake of stability in exchange rates. The gold standard was finally abandoned after World War I, and since then the objective of stability of exchange rates has lost its significance. However, in paper currency standard, stability of exchange rates is maintained through the device of devaluation or overvaluation of the currency, as the case may be. Now, in most of the countries the monetary policy is directed towards achieving economic stability. 2. Price Stability Economists like Gustav Cassel and Keynes argue that domestic price stability should be the main objective of central bank’s monetary policy. Violent fluctuations in prices create the problem of inflation and deflation which cause enormous hardships to consumers, wage-earners and other factor-owners. Both post-war inflation and great depression of 30s have convinced the economists that the objective of monetary policy should be the stabilization of the domestic price level even if this stabilization may mean destabilization of the exchange rates. The objective of price stability has been criticized on several grounds. Modern economists believe that the objective of monetary policy should not be restricted only to the price stability but to the stabilization of the economic activity at full employment level in the economy. Moreover, the term ‘price stability’ is very vague. Price level may mean wholesale prices, retail prices, labor prices, and so on. The stabilization of general price level is compatible with rising or falling of individual prices. Above all, the objective of price stability ignores the realistic requirements of a dynamic society. Thus, on account of the aforesaid limitations the objective of price stability has lost its significance in present times. It is now resorted to along with the currently more important objective, i.e. full employment. 3. Neutrality of Money Prof. Hayek and some other economists belonging to Austrian School have emphasized upon the neutrality of money as the objective of monetary policy. The neutral money policy is based upon the assumption that money should only play the role of medium of exchange and should not work as a measure of value. In other words, the money supply should be regulated in such a manner that it may not affect the output, price, employment, etc. It is only by keeping the supply of money as constant that it can play neutral role. It is however wrong to assume that by keeping the supply of money as constant the fluctuations in the price level can be avoided. Even if the money supply remains unchanged, but if velocity of circulation increases or decreases, it will definitely disturb the price level. Thus, it is clear that the monetary authority cannot make the money neutral just by keeping its supply unchanged.
4. Full Employment Full employment refers to a situation in which all those who are able and willing to work at he prevailing rates of wages get employment opportunities. Full employment, however, does not mean complete or total employment. Even at full employment level 2% to 5% resources may remain unemployed. Various forms of unemployment like involuntary unemployment, seasonal unemployment, frictional unemployment and structural unemployment may exist at full employment level. It may not be very difficult for most countries to achieve the level of full employment but the real problem is how to maintain it in the long run. Periodical fluctuations in the business activities may cause unemployment in the economic system. The monetary policy, therefore, should be directed to ensure that current investment exceeds current saving and this can be done by creation of credit money or by the creation of additional bank deposits or by higher velocity of circulation. When full employment is achieved, efforts should be made to maintain equality between saving and investment at the full employment level. According to Crowther, “the obvious objective of the monetary policy of a country should be to attain equilibrium between saving and investment at the point of full employment.” 5. Economic Growth with Stability While for most of the developed countries the objective of monetary policy is to maintain equality between saving and investment at full employment level, the monetary policy in the undeveloped countries is directed towards achieving high rate of economic growth. Monetary authority in an underdeveloped economy can use different tools to promote economic growth. Economic growth refers to a process whereby an economy’s real national income increases over a long period of time. By increase in real national income we mean more availability of goods and services in a country during a given period of time. Thus, economic growth means the transformation of society of a country from a state of under development to a high level of economic achievement. The main hindrance in economic growth is the lack of investment activities in the underdeveloped countries. Monetary policy can play a very crucial role in promoting the investment activities. Monetary policy can also discourage investment in less-productive or lessuseful activities. In other words, monetary policy may be a mixture of ‘cheap’ and ‘tight’ monetary management, so as to encourage and discourage investment according to the requirement, so as to encourage and discourage investment according to the requirements of business activities. Besides, the monetary policy should also aim at maintaining stability in the economy. Monetary policy should be directed towards achieving high rate of growth over a long period of time. OBJECTIVES OF MONETARY POLICY IN A DEVELOPING ECONOMY Prof. Ragnar Nurkse defines underdeveloped countries as “those which compared with the advanced countries are under-equipped with capital in relation to their population and natural resources.” Underdeveloped countries do posses plenty of natural and manpower resources but
they are unutilized or underutilized. Most of the underdeveloped countries suffer from the problems of low level of real per capita income, business fluctuations, price instability, lack of credit facilities, lack of capital formation, balance of payments disequilibrium, etc. An effective and proper monetary policy will not only provide adequate financial resources for economic development but also help the underdeveloped countries to set up and accelerate the rate of output, employment and income. It may also help these countries in containing inflationary pressures and achieving balance of payment equilibrium. Following are the main objectives of monetary policy in a developing economy: 1. Inducement to Saving Capital formation which is a prerequisite to economic growth depends upon saving. Monetary policy in an underdeveloped country helps in promoting savings, their mobilization, and their investment in productive activities. In order to induce savings, the monetary authority has to offer various incentives to the savers in the form of high rate of interest, safety of deposits, etc. 2. Investment of Savings According to Prof. Meier and Prof. Baldwin, “the problem of inadequate savings cannot be solved merely by creating new institutions, but the problem can be solved only by saving profitable investment of savings.” The objective of economic growth cannot be achieved unless and until the savings are utilized in productive investment activities. The rate of investment is very low in underdeveloped countries on account of the absence of profitable productive activities, lack of entrepreneurial ability and low marginal efficiency of capital. The central bank in such a situation can resort to cheap money policy to promote investment activities. 3. Appropriate Policy as regard to Rate of Interest The structure of the rate of interest is generally not conductive to economic growth in underdeveloped countries—the rates of interest do not only differ according to different timeschedules but these also differ in different regions and business activities. High rate of interest, as they are generally witnessed in underdeveloped countries, discourage both public and private investment. The monetary authority, therefore, is required to formulate such a policy as regards the rate of interest which may induce the investors to go in for more loans and advances from the commercial banks and other financial institutions. 4. Maintenance and Monetary Equilibrium Monetary policy in an underdeveloped country should be directed towards achieving equality between demand for money and supply of money. In the initial stages of economic development there is need to expand credit facilities but once a certain level of growth is achieved credit restrictions of various kinds must be imposed by the central bank. In practice, however, it is very difficult to say as to when the monetary authority should impose credit restrictions to control the supply of money.
5. To make Balance of Payment Favorable Most of the underdeveloped countries have to import capital goods, machinery, equipments, technical know-how, etc. in the initial stage of their development. Consequently, their imports exceed the exports and balance of payments becomes unfavorable. Monetary policy should be directed towards maintaining stability in exchange rates and removing disequilibrium in the balance of payments. 6. Price Stability Internal price stability is an important objective of monetary policy in underdeveloped countries. Violent fluctuations in the internal price level not only disrupt the smooth working of an economy but these also lead to insecurity and social injustice. While inflation creates enormous hardships for the wage earners and consumers, deflation proves disastrous for both entrepreneurs and wage-earners. Increasing cost of labor and material also increases the cost of various projects, which adversely affect the rate of economic growth. It should be noted that the effects of price instability are always cumulative in character. Therefore, monetary authority in a developing country should pursue such a monetary policy which may help in maintaining price stability over a long period so that the development activities may go uninterrupted. Different monetary measures can be a adopted for inflationary and deflationary conditions. If inflationary pressures are mounting in the economy, the monetary authority can resort to stringent monetary action, so as to restrict the supply of money and credit in the country. For example, measures like high bank rate, selling of government securities, raising the reserve ratio, raising the margin requirement, etc., can be adopted to contain inflation. Likewise, a different set of measures like lowering the bank rate, purchasing government securities in open market, lowering reserve ratio, reducing the margin requirements, etc., can be adopted to control deflation. Thus the monetary authority in a developing economy can follow the policy of monetary expansion and monetary contraction to stabilize the internal price level. We can, therefore, conclude that the ultimate objective of monetary policy in the developing countries is to achieve sustained economic growth with stability. LIMITATIONS OF MONETARY POLICY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Monetary policy can play a very crucial and significant role in the economic development of developing countries. However, the success of the monetary policy is limited by certain factors; the more important amongst these are as follows:
1. Underdeveloped Monetary and Capital Market Most of the developing countries do not have a well-developed and fully-organized money and capital market. In the absence of such developed money markets it is not possible to effectively implement the various credit control policies by the central bank. 2. Lack of Integrated Structure of Rate of Interest In the developing countries a sizable proportion of the total financial resources come from the unorganized banking sector. In the absence of an integrated and well-organized structure of rate of interest the central bank fails to influence the market rate of interest through changes in the bank rate. In fact, any increase or decrease in the bank rate must be reflected in the form of increased or decreased market rate of interest, but it does not happen in the developing countries. 3. Banking Habits of the People In the developing countries most of the exchange transactions are conducted with the help of money. People seldom use credit instruments to perform exchange transactions. It is for this reason that the credit control policy of the central bank does not have desired effect on the business activities. 4. Lack of Co-operation by the Commercial Bank Commercial banks are the institutions which help in the implementation of the monetary policy pursued by the central bank. In developing countries, however, the commercial banks fail to provide sufficient co-operation to the central bank and in some cases they also flout the directives given by the central bank. Monetary policy cannot succeed unless and until there is a proper coordination and co-operation between the central bank and commercial banks. 5. Literacy and Social Obstacles Most of the developing countries suffer from mass illiteracy, superstitions, dogmatism and other social evils. People do not understand the significance of banking institutions. Neither they keep their deposits with the banks, nor do they avail the opportunities of loans and advances from the banks. The success of monetary policy depends upon the widespread banking institutions, banking habits of the people, adequate development of credit facilities, adequate quantity of bank deposits, entrepreneurial ability, etc. In brief, the monetary policy in a developing country suffers from several limitations. The monetary authority on the one hand, has to create conditions whereby the banking and financial institutions may flourish, and, on the other hand, it has to exercise various restrictions and controls to regulate the supply of currency and credit in economy. The monetary authority has also to manipulate the credit policy in such a way as to step up saving and investment activities for accelerating the rate of economic growth.
MEANING OF FISCAL POLICY
Monetary policy alone cannot achieve the objectives of sustained economic growth, stability and social justice in a developing economy. It is, therefore, essential to supplement the monetary policy by an effective fiscal policy. Monetary and fiscal policies taken together can prove to be very effective in achieving the objective of growth with stability. Fiscal policy refers to government spending, taxing, borrowing and debt management. The government through its fiscal policy can influence the nature of economic activities in a country. According to Arthur Smithies, “Fiscal policy is a policy under which the government uses its expenditure and revenue programs to produce desirable effects and avoid undesirable effects on national income, production and employment.” Fiscal policy is used as a balancing device in the development of an economy. It refers to a process of shaping public taxation and public expenditure so as to help dampen the swings of the business cycle and to contribute towards the maintenance of a progressive, high employment economy free from excessive inflation or deflation. In other words, the modern fiscal policy is a technique to attain and maintain full employment by manipulating public expenditure and revenue in such a way as to keep equilibrium between effective demand and supply of goods and services at a particular time. There are mainly three constituents of the fiscal policy; these are: • Taxation policy, • Public expenditure policy, and • Public debt policy. All these constituents must work together to make the fiscal policy sound and effective. OBJECTIVE OF FISCAL POLICY IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY The objectives of fiscal policy differ from country to country according to the level of economic advancement. The role of fiscal policy in developed countries is to maintain the level of full employment, and to stabilize the rate of growth. While in an underdeveloped and developing economy, the role of fiscal policy is to accelerate the rate of capital formation and investment, change the pattern of investment, maintaining adequate supply of essential consumer goods on the one hand, and capital goods on the other, encourage the investment activities into socially desirable channels, maintaining price stability, and above all to make the distribution of national product just and equitable. These objectives of fiscal policy may come in conflict with one another. For example, the objective of high rate of economic growth may come in conflict with the distributive objective of the fiscal policy. Likewise, equitable distribution of income and wealth may adversely affect the inducement to produce more and thus retard the rate of economic growth. Thus, reconciliation has to be achieved between these conflicting objectives of fiscal policy. The main objectives of fiscal policy in a developing economy may be summarized as follows:
1. Mobilization of Resources: Most of the developing countries are caught in the ‘vicious circle of poverty.’ Prof. Higgins remarks that “the road to the growth of developing economies is paved with vicious circles.” Vicious circle of poverty refers to the circular constellation of forces, tending to act and react in such a way as to keep a poor country in a state of poverty. The most important objective of fiscal policy in a developing country should be to break this vicious circle of poverty. In order to achieve the above objective it is of utmost importance to increase the rate of investment and capital formation to accelerate the rate of growth. The government may resort to voluntary and forced saving to collect enough resources for investment. Growth breeds inflation. It is, therefore, essential to contain inflationary pressure in the economy through the curtailment of consumption expenditure and avoidance of unproductive investment. In developing countries, the level of per capital income is very low. As a result of this, adequate voluntary savings do not take place. The government, therefore, has to depend on taxation and public borrowings for raising revenue resources to finance development programs. 2. Acceleration of Economic Growth The aim of fiscal policy in a developing country is to accelerate the rate of growth so that the real national income of the country may increase in the long run. The government, through its taxation policy, public borrowings, deficit financing, etc., can provide incentives for saving and investment. The revenue resources collected through taxes should be invested in productive activities. Public expenditure should be diverted towards new and more useful development activities. The government may also grant tax relief and subsidies to the entrepreneurial class to boost the investment activities. Expansion of investment opportunities will certainly have a favorable effect on the level of business activities and rate of economic growth. 3. To Minimize the Inequalities of Income and Wealth To maintain the equality for income and wealth is not only an objective of economic growth, but a precondition to it. The government, therefore, should formulate its fiscal policy in such a manner so that it may reduce the inequalities of income and wealth. A mere increase in national income does not necessarily promote economic growth. It is all the more essential to reduce the existing inequalities of income and wealth. Extreme inequalities create political and social discontentment and generate instability in the economy. The following measures can be taken to reduce the inequalities of income and wealth: a) Progressive taxes may be imposed on the rich people so that the unnecessary consumption expenditure is curtailed. b) The poorer section of the society should be exempted from taxes. c) Luxury goods should be highly taxed and the proceeds so collected be diverted to productive investment activities. d) The government must spend more on the social services or on the items which benefit the poor people most.
e)
The fiscal policy must discourage unearned income.
4. To Increase Employment Opportunities One of the important objectives of fiscal policy in a developing country is to increase the employment was regarded as the most important objective under the influence of Keynes. Prof. Lewis is of the opinion that without providing full employment to the available manpower, the objective of economic growth will remain incomplete. The government through her fiscal policy can help in creating and promoting an atmosphere where people may get employment opportunities. The government in a developing country can resort to the following methods to raise the level of employment in the country. a) Public Spending. Public expenditure is the most potent weapon to fight against unemployment. The level of employment depends upon effective demand. The government can influence effective demand either by making more public expenditure or by resorting to such fiscal methods which may raise the level of private expenditure. The role of public expenditure becomes very significant during the period of depression when the private entrepreneurs are not keen to take up investment activities. The government can resort to ‘counter cyclical fiscal policy,’ which means that taxes and government spending be varied in an anti-cyclical direction; government spending being cut and taxes increased in the expanding phase of cycle, and government spending increased and taxes cut during the contraction phase. Increased government expenditure will open new job opportunities in the economy, which mean creation of demand for goods and services. b) Taxation Policy Taxation policy of the government can play a very important role in raising the level of employment in a developing economy. Unemployment is the result of low propensity to consume. The government can resort to redistributive tax policy to remove the deficiency in the propensity to consume. While the rich people have a low propensity to consume the poor have a very high propensity. The government can impose heavy takes on the rich people and the proceeds of these taxes may be distributed among the poor. Progressive taxes on the rich persons are socially desirable and economically advantageous. It should, however, be noted that the progressive taxes should not adversely affect the inducement to save and invest. Similarly, the money transferred from the rich to the poor should not be wasted on conspicuous expenditure but utilized for essential consumption expenditure and investment. c) Public Debt Policy Taxation policy does not prove to be very effective in the developing countries. People in these countries have a low level of per capita income, therefore, the scope of raising the tax rates or imposing fresh taxes is very limited. The government, therefore, has to resort to public borrowing to meet the various public expenditure obligations.
Public debt policy can be used to control the non-essential private consumption expenditure and to raise small savings for financing the development expenditure. The government for this purpose can issue debentures, bonds, etc., with attractive rates of interest to encourage people to purchase these titles. In case the government fails to collect sufficient finance through these methods, it may resort to compulsory savings of the public. We cannot, however, depend very much upon public debt policy for raising the level of employment in a developing economy. Public debt will prove effective only when these debts are collected through the idle balance with the people. If the public borrowing results in a fall in current consumption expenditure or is financed through curtailment in investment, it will not have desired effects on the level of employment and income. d) Price Stability As we have already discussed, a developing country does not posses adequate capital resources to finance developmental expenditure. The scope of taxes and public borrowing is also limited. Therefore, the government has to resort to deficit financing. In most of the developing countries deficits in the State’s budget are met by printing more currency notes. Increase in the supply of money creates inflationary conditions in the economy. Increasing prices do not only create hardships for the wageearners and customers, these also raise the cost of development projects. Though some economists have favored mild inflation as an incentive for capital formation, they have emphasized that large-scale inflation would retard economic growth. Thus, fiscal policy should aim at curbing inflationary pressure inherent in a developing economy. While the demand for consumer goods is very large, the supply remains relatively inelastic due to imperfections of markets and structural rigidities, which impede the supply of essential goods. Imbalance between the demand and the supply leads to inflationary pressure in the economy. On account of increase in the prices of essential goods, the demand for increase in the wage rates gains momentum, and thus the economy is caught in the vicious circle of high prices and high wages. Thus, a demand-pull inflation tends to generate cost-push inflation in a developing country. A package of fiscal measures can be adopted to contain inflation. Some of the important measures are given below: i. ii. iii. iv. v. The excess purchasing power of the people should be withdrawn through taxes, compulsory savings and public borrowings. Some anti-inflationary taxes like super tax, expenditure tax, taxes on luxury items etc., should be imposed. Besides liquid assets, cash-balances and capital assets should also be taxed. The policy must be progressive so that it may affect only that section of the society which is benefited most by inflation and does not harm the poorer section. Tax policy should encourage voluntary savings and control non-essential consumption expenditure.
Fiscal measures may have limited success to check inflationary pressures therefore, these must be supplemented with monetary measures to make them more effective. Though deflationary conditions are not so common in developing countries as inflationary conditions, but if such a situation occurs, an appropriate fiscal policy with emphasis on public expenditure can be followed to relieve the economy from the quagmire of depression. LIMITATIONS OF FISCAL POLICY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Fiscal policy has achieved great success in the developed countries, but in case of developing countries it suffers from several limitations. In fact, the nature and fundamental characteristics of the developing countries are responsible for partial success of the fiscal policy. Some of the limitations of the fiscal policy are as follows: 1. The tax structure in the developing countries is rigid and narrow. There is complete absence of conditions conducive to the growth of well-knit and integrated tax policy. 2. A sizable portion of the developing countries is non-monetized. As a result of this, the fiscal measures pursued by the government do not prove to be very effective and fruitful. 3. There is lack of statistical information as regard to the income, expenditure, saving, investment, employment, etc. Lack of adequate data makes it difficult for the public authorities to formulate a rational and effective fiscal policy. 4. Unless the people understand the implications of the fiscal policy and fully cooperate with the government in its implementation, it cannot succeed. In developing countries, majority of the people are illiterate, and they do not understand the implications of fiscal policy. 5. People are not conscious about their responsibilities and role in the developmental programs. There are cases of large-scale tax evasion with their impact on the fiscal policy as well. In the event of tax evasion the government may fail to collect the stipulated amount from the taxes. 6. Fiscal policy or for that matter any other policy requires an efficient administrative machinery to formulate and successfully implement the policy. In developing countries, different political groups and parties work on different lines and in different directions to achieve their political ends without bothering about the welfare of the people at large. The administration is corrupt and inefficient, and is incapable to execute the fiscal policy honestly and effectively. The entire above analysis brings into light the basic fact that inorder to be able to achieve the objective of price stability, full employment, rapid economic growth, promotion of social justice the government in developing countries should try to resort to a blend of both monetary policy and fiscal policy in tandem.
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