Description
A mode of transport is a solution that makes use of a particular type of vehicle, infrastructure and operation. The transport of a person or of cargo may involve one mode or several of the mode
Title WHAT IS A TRANSPORTATION BUSINESS
Table of Contents Acknowledgement………………………………………...i Dedication…………………………………………………ii Introduction………………………………………………..iii Chapter One
Definition of Transportation System………………………………..2 Five Basic Means of Transportation………………………………...3
Chapter Two
Functions of Transport System………………………………………4 Private Transport System…………………………………………….6 Public Transport System……………………………………………..6-7 Modern Public Transport…………………………………………….7
Chapter Three
How to Manage Transportation………………………………………8 Cost Effective Solution to Transportation Problem…………………..9 Benefits of Transportation…………………………………………….10 Transportation Attributes Cost………………………………………..11
Chapter Four
Categorization of Transportation……………………………………..12 Public Transportation Efficiency Project……………………………..13 Evaluation of Transportation / Conclusion …………………………..14 Reference……………………………………………………………...15
Introduction
Transportation affects almost every aspect of resource use, air and water quality, and urban livability. Reducing the need for automobiles has major environmental benefits and is one of the most important urban planning strategies. Building designers and planners can help reduce automobilist use. Separation of commercial, retail and residential areas; availability of efficient and reliable public transit; and the dangers of cycling and other human powered transportation all affect the need for automobiles commuting and storage. Parking spaces in mixed use buildings and developments can often be shared between occupancies with differing schedules, reducing the area of impervious parking pavement, storm water peak flows and pollution. I am encouraging the commercial ride to take appropriate directive from government to avoid the traffics in the state. I am delighted to write on this topic “Transportation” and with the experienceness I have acquired on this state, government should take transportation system serious.
1
CHAPTER ONE
DEFINITION TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
Definition of Transport: A facility consisting of the means and equipment necessary for the movement of passengers or goods. The act of moving something from one location to another Fare: the sum charged for riding in a public conveyance. Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one place to another. The term is derived from the Latin Trans (“across”) and portage (“to carry”) Transportation concerns the movement of products from a source-such as a plant, factory, or work-shop-to a destination-such as a warehouse, customer, or retail store. Transportation may take place via air, water, rail, road, pipeline, or cable routes, using planes, boats, trains, trucks, and telecommunications equipment as the means of transportation. The goal for any business owner is to minimize transportation costs while
also meeting demand for products. Transportation costs generally depend upon the distance between the source and the destination, the means of transportation chosen, and the size and quantity of the product to be shipped. In many cases, there are several sources and many destinations for the same product, which adds a significant level of complexity to the problem of minimizing transportation costs. Indeed, the United States boasts the world’s largest and most complex transportation system, with four million miles worth of roads, a railroad network that could circle the earth almost seven times if laid out in a straight line, and enough oil and gas lines to circle the globe. The decisions a business owner must make regarding transportation of products are closely related to a number of other distribution issues. For example, the accessibility of suitable means of transportation factors into decisions regarding where best to locate a business or facility. The means of transportation chosen will also affect decisions regarding the form of packing used for products and the size or frequency of shipments made. Although transportation costs may be reduced by sending larger shipments less frequently, it is also necessary to consider the costs of holding extra inventory. The interrelationship of these decisions means that successful planning and scheduling can help business owners to save on transportation.
2
FIVE BASIC MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION
There are five basic means of transporting products utilized by manufacturers and distributors: air, motor carrier, train, marine, or pipeline. Many distribution networks consist of a combination of these means of transportation. For example, oil may be pumped through a pipeline to a waiting ship for transport and from there transferred to trucks that transport gas line to retailers or heating oil to consumers. All of these transportation choices contain advantages and drawbacks. Air transport. Air transportation offers the advantage of speed and can be used for longdistance transport. However, air is also the most expensive means of transportation, so it is generally used only for smaller items of relatively high value-such as electronic equipment-and items for which the speed of arrival is important-such as goods. Another disadvantage associated with air transportation is its lack of accessibility; since a plane cannot be pulled up to a loading dock, it is necessary to bring products to and from the airport by truck. Coupled with increased pressure on consumer goods manufacturers to deliver products quickly to 1) meet customer expectations and 2) reduce inventory and other supply chain costs, are expected to “fuel the demand for expedited services.”
Railways. The rail transportation network in the country included of major rail lines in the late 1990s, on which carriers transported an estimated of freight annually. Trains are ideally suited for shipping bulk products, and can be adapted to meet specific product needs through the use of specialized cars i.e., tankers for liquids, refrigerated cars for perishables, and cars fitted with ramps for automobiles. Motor carriers. Accessible and ideally suited for transporting goods over short distances, trucks are the dominant means of shipping in the country. In fact, motor carriers account for approximately in annual revenue, much of it due to local shipments (shipments to and from business enterprises in the same community or local region). Water transport. Water transportation is the least expensive and slowest mode of freight transport. It is generally used to transport heavy products over long distances when speed is not an issue. Although accessibility is a problem with ships because they are necessarily limited to coastal area or major inland waterways possible using either trucks or rail cars. Pipeline facilities. Most pipeline transportation systems are privately owned. Generally used for transport of petroleum products, they can also be used to deliver certain products (chemicals, coal, etc.) of other companies. According to Transportation and Distribution, the nation’s natural gas line networks include transmission pipe and more distribution lines, which combine to deliver nearly 20 cubit feet of gas on an annual basis. 3
CHAPTER TWO
FUNCTIONS OF TRASPORT SYSTEM
1. The Nature of Transport Terminals A terminal may be defined as any facility where freight and passengers are assembled or dispersed. Both cannot travel individually, but in batches. Passengers have to go to bus terminals and airports first, where they are “assembled” in busloads or planeloads to reach their final destinations where they are dispersed. Freight has to be consolidated at a port or a rail yard before onward shipment. Terminals may also be points of interchange involving the same mode of transport. Thus, a passenger wishing to travel by train from Paris may have to change trains, or an air passenger wishing to fly between Nigeria and United State may have to change planes in Toronto. Terminal. Any location where freight and passengers either originates, terminates, or is handled in the transportation process. Terminals are central and intermediate locations in
the movements of passengers and freight. They often require specific facilities and equipment to accommodate the traffic they handle. Three major attributes are linked with the importance and the performance of transport terminals: Location. The major locational factor of a transport terminal is obviously to serve a large concentration of population and/or industrial activities, representing a terminal’s market area. Specific terminals have specific locational constraints, such as port and airport sites. New transport terminals tend to be located outside central areas to avoid high land costs and congestion. Accessibility. Accessibility to other terminals (at the local, regional and global scale) as well as how well the terminal is linked to the regional transport system is of importance. For instance, a maritime terminal has little relevance if it is efficiently handling maritime traffic but is poorly connected to its market areas through an inland transport system (rail and road). Infrastructure. The main function of a terminal is to handle and transship freight or passengers. Infrastructure considerations are consequently important as they must accommodate current traffic and anticipate future trends and also technological and logistical changes. Modern terminal infrastructures consequently require massive investments and are among the largest structures. 4 2. Passenger Terminals With one exception, passenger terminals require relatively little specific equipment. This is because individual mobility is the means by which passengers access busses, ferries or trains. Certainly, services such as information, shelter, food and security are required, but the layouts and activities taking place in passenger terminals tend to be simple and require relatively little equipment. They may appear congested at certain times of the day, but the flows of people can be managed successfully with good design of platforms and access points, and with appropriate scheduling of arrivals and departures. The amount of time passengers spend in such terminals tends to be brief. As a result bus termini and railway stations tend to be made up of simple components, from ticket offices and waiting areas to limited amounts of retailing. Measurement of activities in passenger terminals is generally straightforward. The most common indicator is the number of passengers handled, sometimes differentiated according to arrivals and departures. Transfer passengers are counted twice (once on arrival, once on departure), and so airports that serve as major transfer facilities inevitably record high passenger totals. A further measure of airport activity is number of aircraft movements, a figure that must be used with some caution because it pays no regard to the capacity of planes. High numbers of aircraft movements may not be correlated with passenger traffic totals.
3. Freight terminals Freight handling requires specific loading and unloading equipment. In addition to the facilities required to accommodate ships, trucks and trains (berths, loading bays and freight yards respectively) a very wide range of handling gear is required that is determined by the kinds of cargoes handled. Freight transport terminals have a set of linked with core and ancillary activities. The result is that terminals are differentiated functionally both by the mode involved and the commodities transferred. 4. Terminal Costs Because they jointly perform transfer and consolidation functions, terminals are important economically because of the costs incurred in carrying out these activities. The traffic they handle is a source of employment and benefit regional economic activities, notably by providing accessibility to suppliers and customers. Terminal costs represent an important component of total transport costs. They are fixed costs that are incurred regardless of the length of the eventual trip, and vary significantly between the modes. They can be considered as: Infrastructure costs. Include construction and maintenance costs of facilities such as piers, runways, cranes and structures (warehouses, offices, etc.). Transshipment costs. The costs of loading and unloading passengers or freight. 5 Administration costs. Many terminal facilities are managed by institutions such as port or airport authorities or by private companies. In both cases administration costs are incurred. Because ships have the largest carrying capacities, they incur the largest terminal costs, since it may take many days to load or unload a vessel. Conversely, a truck or a passenger bus can be loaded much more quickly, and hence the terminal costs for road transport are the lowest. Terminal costs play an important role in determining the competitive position between the modes. Because of their high freight terminal costs, ships and rail are unsuitable for short-haul trips. Reduced terminal costs have had a major impact on transportation and international trade. Not only have they reduced over-all freight rates, and thereby re-shaping competition between the modes, but they have had a profound effect on transport systems. Ships spend far less time in port, enabling ships to make many more revenue-generating trips per year. Efficiency in the airports, rail facilities and ports greatly improves the effectiveness of transportation as a whole.
PRIVATE TRANSPORT SYSTEM
The private transport system: Relies on an extensive road system and the motor car. We pay for this with taxes on petrol and cars. We use trucks to transport a large amount of goods around Australia. Therefore, you will find many trucks using the road system side by side with cars. Most country owns a car and uses it often. They use them for every day travel for work and social events. People living in regional and rural areas rely on cars for just about all their transport needs. You may wish to buy a car or motorbike soon after you come to Australia. Traders of new and used motor vehicles advertise them for sale in papers, on the internet and in retail outlets (car yards). If you buy a motor vehicle, you will need extra money for taxes and insurance. The cost of running and maintaining a car can be high. New and some used cars have a warranty, which means that the seller will pay for some repairs that occur in the early life of the vehicle. You must have a license to drive a motor vehicle in Australia. The road laws in Australia impose a large money penalty on anyone caught breaking them. In many parts of the world private transport dominates; however, in places with public transport systems, and where private transport use is not practical or not affordable, or where the public transport is more practical or more desirable than the private alternatives, then it is used. Many towns and cities around the world are investing in public transport initiatives to increase the attractiveness and usage of public transport.
6 Public transport can offer significant advantages in areas with higher population densities if it is efficiently utilized, due to its potentially smaller physical and environmental footprint per passenger. Road-based public transport risks being slower than private vehicles if it gets held up in general traffic congestion. Compounding upon this, scheduled transport vehicles have to make frequent stops to board additional passengers and an individual trip may require one or more transfers. Routes are also often circuitous to increase the area serviced by the system. Therefore, transport authorities wishing to increase the attractiveness and use of public transport often respond by establishing or expanding dedicated or semi-dedicated public transport lanes, traffic signal priority, and other measures.
PUBLIC TRASPORT SYSTEM
Public transport: comprise all transport systems that transport members of the general public, usually charging set fares. While the above terms are generally taken to include rail and bus services, wider definitions might include scheduled airline services, ferries, taxicab services etc. A further restriction that is sometimes applied is that transit should
occur in continuously shared vehicles, which would exclude taxis that are not shared-ride taxis. Public transport is usually regulated as a common carrier and is usually configured to provide scheduled service on fixed routes on a non-reservation basis, although share taxis provide an ad-hoc form of flexible public transport, and demand responsive transport provides a pre-book able form of public shared transport. Taxicabs and other vehicles for hire are generally fully flexible
MODERN PUBLIC TRANSPORT
Public transportation can usefully be classified in a variety of ways:Larger urban areas with multiple interconnected transport modes, probably including metro/underground, bus, taxi, tram and ferry and complex transport interchanges Smaller urban areas often using buses and taxis and simple interchanges Rural areas typically relying more on buses and taxis and share taxis Inter-urban and regional transport, often based on the train, coach and the plane.
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CHAPTER THREE
HOW TO MANAGE TRANSPORTATION
Transportation Demand Management (TDM), Is a general term for various strategies that increase transportation system efficiency. TDM treats mobility as a means to an end, rather than an end in itself. It emphasizes the movement of people and goods, rather than motor vehicles, and so gives priority to more efficient modes (such as walking, cycling, ridesharing, public transit and telework), particularly under congested conditions. It prioritizes travel based on the value and costs of each trip, giving higher value trips and lower cost modes priority over lower value, higher cost travel, when doing so increases overall system efficiency. The value of TDM is further enhanced by the following trends:
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Rising facility costs. The costs of expanding highways and parking facilities are increasing. In many cases it is more cost effective to manage demand than to continue expanding supply. Increased urbanization. In most developed countries the majority (typically 8090%) of people and jobs are located in urban areas, where traffic and parking problems are significant and alternative modes are cost effective. Demographics. The population is aging in most developed countries, increasing the importance of providing quality travel options for non-drivers. Energy Costs. Vehicle fuel costs are projected to increase in the future due to depletion of oil supplies and environmental constraints. Consumer preferences and market trends. Many consumers want to live in more multi-modal communities where it is possible to walk and bicycle safely, use neighborhood services, and have access to quality public transportation. Environmental concerns. Concerns over air pollution, sprawl and other environmental impacts are motivating policy changes to encourage more efficient transportation.
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8
COST EFFECTIVE SOLUTION TO TRANSPORTATION PROBLEMS
When all impacts are considered, TDM is often the most cost effective solution to transportation problems. TDM can provide multiple benefits, including reduced congestion, road and parking facility cost savings, crash cost savings, and consumer cost savings, pollution reduction, and more efficient land use. Although not every TDM strategy supports every objective, most support several. A comprehensive that includes a variety of complementary TDM strategies usually helps achieve most transportation improvement objectives. Transportation Demand Management can provide significant savings to consumers and society by reducing and deferring roadway capacity expansion costs. It is often the least solution. Adding capacity to accommodate additional peak-period vehicle trips typically costs N30 to N50 per day just for road and parking facilities. In addition, consumers must spend thousands of dollars annually on, and society bears external costs, including crash risk, pollution emissions and reduced mobility for non-drivers.
Flexibility TDM can provide flexible solutions. TDM greatly expands the range of solutions that can be considered for addressing transportation problems, and allows solutions to be tailored to a particular situation. It can often be implemented quickly, and target a particular location, time period or user group. For example, TDM can reduce congestion problems during Special Events, road construction or emergencies. It may allow new development in areas where road and parking capacity is constrained, it can help protection particularly sensitive environments, and it can provide access to groups with special mobility needs. Equity TDM can help achieve equity objectives (Evaluating TDM Equity). For example, TDM strategies can: • • • • Increase horizontal equity (fairness) by creating more neutral planning and investment practices. Increase horizontal equity by making transportation prices more accurately reflect costs. Benefit lower-income people by providing direct financial savings and improving affordable transport choices. 9 Benefit transportation disadvantaged people by improving transport choices and reducing the automobile external costs they must bear (such as road and parking subsidies, and uncompensated crash risk and pollution costs). Improve basic access by increasing transport choices and giving priority to higher value trips.
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BENEFITS OF TRANSPORTATION
Transportation Costs and Benefits Some people are uncomfortable with the idea that motorized transportation imposes “costs” on society, because it seems arbitrary and judgmental. Virtually any human activity can be considered to impose costs when viewed from some perspectives. What, they ask, is the reference case for transportation that imposes no costs? Doesn’t this focus on costs ignore the benefits of motorized transportation?
But, as this chapter shows, certain types of transportation activity impose higher costs on society than others. Although motor vehicle travel provide benefits, these benefits are largely internal, enjoyed directly by users. It is particularly important to identify external impacts (benefits and costs your neighbors have on you). Rather than focusing on costs, some people may be more comfortable focusing on benefits. The information in this chapter can be used to identify the benefits to society of a more efficient and diverse transportation system. In some situations you would probably prefer that your neighbors reduce their automobile use and rely more on alternative forms of transportation, and all else being equal, you would prefer public policies that encourage more efficient and balanced transportation, and help reduce the transportation costs you bear.
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TRANSPORTATION COSTS CAN BE CATEGORIZED BY THE FOLLOWING ATTRIBUTES:
1. Distribution (Internal and External Impacts)
Internal (also called user) costs and benefits are borne or accrue directly by a good’s consumer. External costs and benefits are borne or accrue by others. Social costs are the total of both internal and external impacts. External impacts do not directly affect consumers’ decisions, and so are forms of market. 2. Variable and Fixed
Variable (also called marginal) costs increase with consumption. Fixed costs do not. For example, fuel, travel time and crash risk are variable vehicle costs because they increase directly with vehicle mileage, while depreciation, insurance, and residential parking are considered fixed, because vehicle owners pay the same, regardless of how much a vehicle is used. The distinction between fixed and variable often depends on perspective. For example, depreciation is often considered a fixed cost because car owners make the same
payments no matter how many miles a year they drive, but a car’s operating life and resale value are affected by how much it is driven, so depreciation is partly variable over the long term. 3. Market or Non-Market Market costs involve goods that are traded in a competitive market, such as vehicles, land and fuel. Non-market costs involve goods that are not regularly traded in markets such as clean air, crash injuries, and quiet. A number of techniques can be used to determine the value that consumers place on non-market goods. 4. Perceived or Actual There is often a difference between perceived and actual automobile costs. Motorists tend to perceive immediate costs such as travel time, stress, parking fees, fuel, and transit fares, while costs that are paid infrequently, such as insurance, depreciation, maintenance, repairs and residential parking, are often underestimated. 5. Price
Price refers to what a consumer pays in exchange for a particular good, or perceivedinternal-variable cost. In general, a market is most efficient if prices reflect marginal costs.
11 CHAPTER FOUR CATEGORIZATION OF TRANSPORTATIO Categorization schemes and qualitative ratings of their intuitiveness ease of use, expandability and ability to meet the project objectives. Each of these schemes is described below. Trip Process – The categorization scheme based on trip process would break-down each element of the public transport trip into a separate process and present efficiency improvement strategies for each process. Elements would include processes such as: stopping at stations and traveling between stations. This scheme would be very easy for public transport managers and planners as well as researchers to understand and use. It would be less intuitive for the general public since their focus is on their particular trip rather than the vehicle trip. Passenger Process – The categorization scheme based on the passenger process would break-down each element of the passenger trip and present efficiency improvement
strategies for each of these processes. Elements would include travel to station and riding transit vehicle. Since this would be based on the passenger’s trip it would be easy for the general public to understand. It would also be easy for planners and researchers to use, but it has the disadvantage of not being as useful as the trip-based scheme in supporting the project objective. More specifically, the passenger process starts with the passenger’s trip to the public transport station/stop and ends with the passenger’s trip from public transport to his ultimate destination. Hardware – The categorization scheme based on hardware would consider improvement strategies for different physical elements of the system. Elements would include vehicle, control systems (e.g. traffic signals for road-based public transportation), and stations. This scheme would be logical for planners and researchers, but less so for the general public who are not likely to think in terms of (all) the physical elements involved in a public transport trip. Organizational Responsibility – The organizational responsibility-based scheme has the advantage that it organizes efficiency improvement strategies based on the public agency department that is responsible for implementing the strategies. In other words, improvements to the roadway would be organized under the roadway department. The processes and sub-processes can be made more efficient by implementing strategies designed to reduce travel time. The research project objective is to improve the communication of these strategies to public transport managers and planners. It proposes to achieve this objective by construct using a categorization scheme based on the tripbased processes and sub-processes. These processes are outlined below. 12 1. Trip Starting Process The “trip starting” process is critical to public transport operations since vehicles that do not start their routes on time generally fall further behind as they travel along their route (since they must pick-up more passengers at each stop than expected). This process is especially problematic since, as the latestarting vehicle falls further behind, the following vehicle catches-up with it (since it is picking up fewer passengers at each stop), causing vehicle bunching and significantly reducing service quality and attractiveness. 2. Travel Between Stations The “travel between stations” process consists of the time public transport vehicles spend moving between stations. There are two main parts of this process. The first consists of time spent moving between stations not including the acceleration and deceleration associated with station stops. For public transport vehicles using an exclusive right-of-way, only other transit vehicles will impact travel time between stations. Stop at Passenger Stations The “stop at passenger stations” process consists of the time spent by the public transport vehicle at a station. It consists of the following subprocesses:•
Door opening time – this consists of the time spent between stopping the vehicle and when the doors are completely open. Alighting time – this consists of the time it takes for passengers to alight the vehicle. Boarding time – this consists of the time it takes for passengers to board the vehicle. Door closing time – this consists of the time between when the doors start to close and when the vehicle can begin moving. Return to traffic time – this consists of the time it takes the vehicle to return to the travel lane from the bus stop. 3. Trip Ending Process the “trip ending process” completes the cycle and consists of: Travel to layover time – the time it takes the transit vehicle to travel from the route end point (last stop) to the layover point. The cycle then begins again with the trip starting process. PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION EFFICIENCY PROJECT The project objective is to encourage the implementation of public transport efficiency improvement strategies at the route level. The approach selected to obtain this objective is to better communicate results of academic and practical studies to practicing public transport managers and planners by developing a database of efficiency strategies and publishing this database on the internet. This chapter outlines a proposed organizational structure for the project’s internet site. 13 The database will have three types of users: public transport managers and planners, researchers, and interested members of the public. Researchers will be able to use the database to publicize the results of their research to practicing public transport managers and planners. This will help assist in the dissemination of academic results into practice increasing the relevance of research. Public transportation planners would be able to add information to the database on strategies they have implemented. Having this type of information available to the public will also help reduce the amount of time public agency planners need to spend explaining improvement strategies to interested individuals (they will be able to refer people). The public would not be able to add information to the database without special permission. EVALUATING TRANSPORTATION BENEFITS/CONCLUSION Transportation provides tremendous benefits, and various techniques can be used to measure these benefits. These are so large that it is difficult to calculate the total benefits of all transportation activities. However, even if such a number could be calculated it would have little practical use. In most planning situations the important factor is the
marginal (incremental) benefits provided by a particular policy or project compared with a Base Case. Marginal transportation benefits can be divided into these two major categories: Mobility and Access Benefits Mobility benefits result from increased travel, such as increased automobile mileage, increased transit or aviation trips, increased walking and cycling, and increased freight transport. Access benefits are similar to mobility benefits, but also include the benefits from access improvements that reduce the need for physical travel, such as more efficient land use, delivery services and telework. These reflect the incremental benefits compared with a reduced level of mobility or access, such as the benefits individuals and society gains from access to school, employment, shopping, friends and recreation activities. Efficiency Benefits Efficiency benefits result from more efficient travel, such as when travelers shift from driving to transit or ridesharing under urban-peak travel conditions, or when a consumer avoids a trip by telecommuting or teleshopping. These reflect the cost savings to individuals and society when transportation becomes more efficient (fewer total resources are consumed to provide a given benefit).
doc_899252986.doc
A mode of transport is a solution that makes use of a particular type of vehicle, infrastructure and operation. The transport of a person or of cargo may involve one mode or several of the mode
Title WHAT IS A TRANSPORTATION BUSINESS
Table of Contents Acknowledgement………………………………………...i Dedication…………………………………………………ii Introduction………………………………………………..iii Chapter One
Definition of Transportation System………………………………..2 Five Basic Means of Transportation………………………………...3
Chapter Two
Functions of Transport System………………………………………4 Private Transport System…………………………………………….6 Public Transport System……………………………………………..6-7 Modern Public Transport…………………………………………….7
Chapter Three
How to Manage Transportation………………………………………8 Cost Effective Solution to Transportation Problem…………………..9 Benefits of Transportation…………………………………………….10 Transportation Attributes Cost………………………………………..11
Chapter Four
Categorization of Transportation……………………………………..12 Public Transportation Efficiency Project……………………………..13 Evaluation of Transportation / Conclusion …………………………..14 Reference……………………………………………………………...15
Introduction
Transportation affects almost every aspect of resource use, air and water quality, and urban livability. Reducing the need for automobiles has major environmental benefits and is one of the most important urban planning strategies. Building designers and planners can help reduce automobilist use. Separation of commercial, retail and residential areas; availability of efficient and reliable public transit; and the dangers of cycling and other human powered transportation all affect the need for automobiles commuting and storage. Parking spaces in mixed use buildings and developments can often be shared between occupancies with differing schedules, reducing the area of impervious parking pavement, storm water peak flows and pollution. I am encouraging the commercial ride to take appropriate directive from government to avoid the traffics in the state. I am delighted to write on this topic “Transportation” and with the experienceness I have acquired on this state, government should take transportation system serious.
1
CHAPTER ONE
DEFINITION TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
Definition of Transport: A facility consisting of the means and equipment necessary for the movement of passengers or goods. The act of moving something from one location to another Fare: the sum charged for riding in a public conveyance. Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one place to another. The term is derived from the Latin Trans (“across”) and portage (“to carry”) Transportation concerns the movement of products from a source-such as a plant, factory, or work-shop-to a destination-such as a warehouse, customer, or retail store. Transportation may take place via air, water, rail, road, pipeline, or cable routes, using planes, boats, trains, trucks, and telecommunications equipment as the means of transportation. The goal for any business owner is to minimize transportation costs while
also meeting demand for products. Transportation costs generally depend upon the distance between the source and the destination, the means of transportation chosen, and the size and quantity of the product to be shipped. In many cases, there are several sources and many destinations for the same product, which adds a significant level of complexity to the problem of minimizing transportation costs. Indeed, the United States boasts the world’s largest and most complex transportation system, with four million miles worth of roads, a railroad network that could circle the earth almost seven times if laid out in a straight line, and enough oil and gas lines to circle the globe. The decisions a business owner must make regarding transportation of products are closely related to a number of other distribution issues. For example, the accessibility of suitable means of transportation factors into decisions regarding where best to locate a business or facility. The means of transportation chosen will also affect decisions regarding the form of packing used for products and the size or frequency of shipments made. Although transportation costs may be reduced by sending larger shipments less frequently, it is also necessary to consider the costs of holding extra inventory. The interrelationship of these decisions means that successful planning and scheduling can help business owners to save on transportation.
2
FIVE BASIC MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION
There are five basic means of transporting products utilized by manufacturers and distributors: air, motor carrier, train, marine, or pipeline. Many distribution networks consist of a combination of these means of transportation. For example, oil may be pumped through a pipeline to a waiting ship for transport and from there transferred to trucks that transport gas line to retailers or heating oil to consumers. All of these transportation choices contain advantages and drawbacks. Air transport. Air transportation offers the advantage of speed and can be used for longdistance transport. However, air is also the most expensive means of transportation, so it is generally used only for smaller items of relatively high value-such as electronic equipment-and items for which the speed of arrival is important-such as goods. Another disadvantage associated with air transportation is its lack of accessibility; since a plane cannot be pulled up to a loading dock, it is necessary to bring products to and from the airport by truck. Coupled with increased pressure on consumer goods manufacturers to deliver products quickly to 1) meet customer expectations and 2) reduce inventory and other supply chain costs, are expected to “fuel the demand for expedited services.”
Railways. The rail transportation network in the country included of major rail lines in the late 1990s, on which carriers transported an estimated of freight annually. Trains are ideally suited for shipping bulk products, and can be adapted to meet specific product needs through the use of specialized cars i.e., tankers for liquids, refrigerated cars for perishables, and cars fitted with ramps for automobiles. Motor carriers. Accessible and ideally suited for transporting goods over short distances, trucks are the dominant means of shipping in the country. In fact, motor carriers account for approximately in annual revenue, much of it due to local shipments (shipments to and from business enterprises in the same community or local region). Water transport. Water transportation is the least expensive and slowest mode of freight transport. It is generally used to transport heavy products over long distances when speed is not an issue. Although accessibility is a problem with ships because they are necessarily limited to coastal area or major inland waterways possible using either trucks or rail cars. Pipeline facilities. Most pipeline transportation systems are privately owned. Generally used for transport of petroleum products, they can also be used to deliver certain products (chemicals, coal, etc.) of other companies. According to Transportation and Distribution, the nation’s natural gas line networks include transmission pipe and more distribution lines, which combine to deliver nearly 20 cubit feet of gas on an annual basis. 3
CHAPTER TWO
FUNCTIONS OF TRASPORT SYSTEM
1. The Nature of Transport Terminals A terminal may be defined as any facility where freight and passengers are assembled or dispersed. Both cannot travel individually, but in batches. Passengers have to go to bus terminals and airports first, where they are “assembled” in busloads or planeloads to reach their final destinations where they are dispersed. Freight has to be consolidated at a port or a rail yard before onward shipment. Terminals may also be points of interchange involving the same mode of transport. Thus, a passenger wishing to travel by train from Paris may have to change trains, or an air passenger wishing to fly between Nigeria and United State may have to change planes in Toronto. Terminal. Any location where freight and passengers either originates, terminates, or is handled in the transportation process. Terminals are central and intermediate locations in
the movements of passengers and freight. They often require specific facilities and equipment to accommodate the traffic they handle. Three major attributes are linked with the importance and the performance of transport terminals: Location. The major locational factor of a transport terminal is obviously to serve a large concentration of population and/or industrial activities, representing a terminal’s market area. Specific terminals have specific locational constraints, such as port and airport sites. New transport terminals tend to be located outside central areas to avoid high land costs and congestion. Accessibility. Accessibility to other terminals (at the local, regional and global scale) as well as how well the terminal is linked to the regional transport system is of importance. For instance, a maritime terminal has little relevance if it is efficiently handling maritime traffic but is poorly connected to its market areas through an inland transport system (rail and road). Infrastructure. The main function of a terminal is to handle and transship freight or passengers. Infrastructure considerations are consequently important as they must accommodate current traffic and anticipate future trends and also technological and logistical changes. Modern terminal infrastructures consequently require massive investments and are among the largest structures. 4 2. Passenger Terminals With one exception, passenger terminals require relatively little specific equipment. This is because individual mobility is the means by which passengers access busses, ferries or trains. Certainly, services such as information, shelter, food and security are required, but the layouts and activities taking place in passenger terminals tend to be simple and require relatively little equipment. They may appear congested at certain times of the day, but the flows of people can be managed successfully with good design of platforms and access points, and with appropriate scheduling of arrivals and departures. The amount of time passengers spend in such terminals tends to be brief. As a result bus termini and railway stations tend to be made up of simple components, from ticket offices and waiting areas to limited amounts of retailing. Measurement of activities in passenger terminals is generally straightforward. The most common indicator is the number of passengers handled, sometimes differentiated according to arrivals and departures. Transfer passengers are counted twice (once on arrival, once on departure), and so airports that serve as major transfer facilities inevitably record high passenger totals. A further measure of airport activity is number of aircraft movements, a figure that must be used with some caution because it pays no regard to the capacity of planes. High numbers of aircraft movements may not be correlated with passenger traffic totals.
3. Freight terminals Freight handling requires specific loading and unloading equipment. In addition to the facilities required to accommodate ships, trucks and trains (berths, loading bays and freight yards respectively) a very wide range of handling gear is required that is determined by the kinds of cargoes handled. Freight transport terminals have a set of linked with core and ancillary activities. The result is that terminals are differentiated functionally both by the mode involved and the commodities transferred. 4. Terminal Costs Because they jointly perform transfer and consolidation functions, terminals are important economically because of the costs incurred in carrying out these activities. The traffic they handle is a source of employment and benefit regional economic activities, notably by providing accessibility to suppliers and customers. Terminal costs represent an important component of total transport costs. They are fixed costs that are incurred regardless of the length of the eventual trip, and vary significantly between the modes. They can be considered as: Infrastructure costs. Include construction and maintenance costs of facilities such as piers, runways, cranes and structures (warehouses, offices, etc.). Transshipment costs. The costs of loading and unloading passengers or freight. 5 Administration costs. Many terminal facilities are managed by institutions such as port or airport authorities or by private companies. In both cases administration costs are incurred. Because ships have the largest carrying capacities, they incur the largest terminal costs, since it may take many days to load or unload a vessel. Conversely, a truck or a passenger bus can be loaded much more quickly, and hence the terminal costs for road transport are the lowest. Terminal costs play an important role in determining the competitive position between the modes. Because of their high freight terminal costs, ships and rail are unsuitable for short-haul trips. Reduced terminal costs have had a major impact on transportation and international trade. Not only have they reduced over-all freight rates, and thereby re-shaping competition between the modes, but they have had a profound effect on transport systems. Ships spend far less time in port, enabling ships to make many more revenue-generating trips per year. Efficiency in the airports, rail facilities and ports greatly improves the effectiveness of transportation as a whole.
PRIVATE TRANSPORT SYSTEM
The private transport system: Relies on an extensive road system and the motor car. We pay for this with taxes on petrol and cars. We use trucks to transport a large amount of goods around Australia. Therefore, you will find many trucks using the road system side by side with cars. Most country owns a car and uses it often. They use them for every day travel for work and social events. People living in regional and rural areas rely on cars for just about all their transport needs. You may wish to buy a car or motorbike soon after you come to Australia. Traders of new and used motor vehicles advertise them for sale in papers, on the internet and in retail outlets (car yards). If you buy a motor vehicle, you will need extra money for taxes and insurance. The cost of running and maintaining a car can be high. New and some used cars have a warranty, which means that the seller will pay for some repairs that occur in the early life of the vehicle. You must have a license to drive a motor vehicle in Australia. The road laws in Australia impose a large money penalty on anyone caught breaking them. In many parts of the world private transport dominates; however, in places with public transport systems, and where private transport use is not practical or not affordable, or where the public transport is more practical or more desirable than the private alternatives, then it is used. Many towns and cities around the world are investing in public transport initiatives to increase the attractiveness and usage of public transport.
6 Public transport can offer significant advantages in areas with higher population densities if it is efficiently utilized, due to its potentially smaller physical and environmental footprint per passenger. Road-based public transport risks being slower than private vehicles if it gets held up in general traffic congestion. Compounding upon this, scheduled transport vehicles have to make frequent stops to board additional passengers and an individual trip may require one or more transfers. Routes are also often circuitous to increase the area serviced by the system. Therefore, transport authorities wishing to increase the attractiveness and use of public transport often respond by establishing or expanding dedicated or semi-dedicated public transport lanes, traffic signal priority, and other measures.
PUBLIC TRASPORT SYSTEM
Public transport: comprise all transport systems that transport members of the general public, usually charging set fares. While the above terms are generally taken to include rail and bus services, wider definitions might include scheduled airline services, ferries, taxicab services etc. A further restriction that is sometimes applied is that transit should
occur in continuously shared vehicles, which would exclude taxis that are not shared-ride taxis. Public transport is usually regulated as a common carrier and is usually configured to provide scheduled service on fixed routes on a non-reservation basis, although share taxis provide an ad-hoc form of flexible public transport, and demand responsive transport provides a pre-book able form of public shared transport. Taxicabs and other vehicles for hire are generally fully flexible
MODERN PUBLIC TRANSPORT
Public transportation can usefully be classified in a variety of ways:Larger urban areas with multiple interconnected transport modes, probably including metro/underground, bus, taxi, tram and ferry and complex transport interchanges Smaller urban areas often using buses and taxis and simple interchanges Rural areas typically relying more on buses and taxis and share taxis Inter-urban and regional transport, often based on the train, coach and the plane.
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CHAPTER THREE
HOW TO MANAGE TRANSPORTATION
Transportation Demand Management (TDM), Is a general term for various strategies that increase transportation system efficiency. TDM treats mobility as a means to an end, rather than an end in itself. It emphasizes the movement of people and goods, rather than motor vehicles, and so gives priority to more efficient modes (such as walking, cycling, ridesharing, public transit and telework), particularly under congested conditions. It prioritizes travel based on the value and costs of each trip, giving higher value trips and lower cost modes priority over lower value, higher cost travel, when doing so increases overall system efficiency. The value of TDM is further enhanced by the following trends:
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Rising facility costs. The costs of expanding highways and parking facilities are increasing. In many cases it is more cost effective to manage demand than to continue expanding supply. Increased urbanization. In most developed countries the majority (typically 8090%) of people and jobs are located in urban areas, where traffic and parking problems are significant and alternative modes are cost effective. Demographics. The population is aging in most developed countries, increasing the importance of providing quality travel options for non-drivers. Energy Costs. Vehicle fuel costs are projected to increase in the future due to depletion of oil supplies and environmental constraints. Consumer preferences and market trends. Many consumers want to live in more multi-modal communities where it is possible to walk and bicycle safely, use neighborhood services, and have access to quality public transportation. Environmental concerns. Concerns over air pollution, sprawl and other environmental impacts are motivating policy changes to encourage more efficient transportation.
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COST EFFECTIVE SOLUTION TO TRANSPORTATION PROBLEMS
When all impacts are considered, TDM is often the most cost effective solution to transportation problems. TDM can provide multiple benefits, including reduced congestion, road and parking facility cost savings, crash cost savings, and consumer cost savings, pollution reduction, and more efficient land use. Although not every TDM strategy supports every objective, most support several. A comprehensive that includes a variety of complementary TDM strategies usually helps achieve most transportation improvement objectives. Transportation Demand Management can provide significant savings to consumers and society by reducing and deferring roadway capacity expansion costs. It is often the least solution. Adding capacity to accommodate additional peak-period vehicle trips typically costs N30 to N50 per day just for road and parking facilities. In addition, consumers must spend thousands of dollars annually on, and society bears external costs, including crash risk, pollution emissions and reduced mobility for non-drivers.
Flexibility TDM can provide flexible solutions. TDM greatly expands the range of solutions that can be considered for addressing transportation problems, and allows solutions to be tailored to a particular situation. It can often be implemented quickly, and target a particular location, time period or user group. For example, TDM can reduce congestion problems during Special Events, road construction or emergencies. It may allow new development in areas where road and parking capacity is constrained, it can help protection particularly sensitive environments, and it can provide access to groups with special mobility needs. Equity TDM can help achieve equity objectives (Evaluating TDM Equity). For example, TDM strategies can: • • • • Increase horizontal equity (fairness) by creating more neutral planning and investment practices. Increase horizontal equity by making transportation prices more accurately reflect costs. Benefit lower-income people by providing direct financial savings and improving affordable transport choices. 9 Benefit transportation disadvantaged people by improving transport choices and reducing the automobile external costs they must bear (such as road and parking subsidies, and uncompensated crash risk and pollution costs). Improve basic access by increasing transport choices and giving priority to higher value trips.
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BENEFITS OF TRANSPORTATION
Transportation Costs and Benefits Some people are uncomfortable with the idea that motorized transportation imposes “costs” on society, because it seems arbitrary and judgmental. Virtually any human activity can be considered to impose costs when viewed from some perspectives. What, they ask, is the reference case for transportation that imposes no costs? Doesn’t this focus on costs ignore the benefits of motorized transportation?
But, as this chapter shows, certain types of transportation activity impose higher costs on society than others. Although motor vehicle travel provide benefits, these benefits are largely internal, enjoyed directly by users. It is particularly important to identify external impacts (benefits and costs your neighbors have on you). Rather than focusing on costs, some people may be more comfortable focusing on benefits. The information in this chapter can be used to identify the benefits to society of a more efficient and diverse transportation system. In some situations you would probably prefer that your neighbors reduce their automobile use and rely more on alternative forms of transportation, and all else being equal, you would prefer public policies that encourage more efficient and balanced transportation, and help reduce the transportation costs you bear.
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TRANSPORTATION COSTS CAN BE CATEGORIZED BY THE FOLLOWING ATTRIBUTES:
1. Distribution (Internal and External Impacts)
Internal (also called user) costs and benefits are borne or accrue directly by a good’s consumer. External costs and benefits are borne or accrue by others. Social costs are the total of both internal and external impacts. External impacts do not directly affect consumers’ decisions, and so are forms of market. 2. Variable and Fixed
Variable (also called marginal) costs increase with consumption. Fixed costs do not. For example, fuel, travel time and crash risk are variable vehicle costs because they increase directly with vehicle mileage, while depreciation, insurance, and residential parking are considered fixed, because vehicle owners pay the same, regardless of how much a vehicle is used. The distinction between fixed and variable often depends on perspective. For example, depreciation is often considered a fixed cost because car owners make the same
payments no matter how many miles a year they drive, but a car’s operating life and resale value are affected by how much it is driven, so depreciation is partly variable over the long term. 3. Market or Non-Market Market costs involve goods that are traded in a competitive market, such as vehicles, land and fuel. Non-market costs involve goods that are not regularly traded in markets such as clean air, crash injuries, and quiet. A number of techniques can be used to determine the value that consumers place on non-market goods. 4. Perceived or Actual There is often a difference between perceived and actual automobile costs. Motorists tend to perceive immediate costs such as travel time, stress, parking fees, fuel, and transit fares, while costs that are paid infrequently, such as insurance, depreciation, maintenance, repairs and residential parking, are often underestimated. 5. Price
Price refers to what a consumer pays in exchange for a particular good, or perceivedinternal-variable cost. In general, a market is most efficient if prices reflect marginal costs.
11 CHAPTER FOUR CATEGORIZATION OF TRANSPORTATIO Categorization schemes and qualitative ratings of their intuitiveness ease of use, expandability and ability to meet the project objectives. Each of these schemes is described below. Trip Process – The categorization scheme based on trip process would break-down each element of the public transport trip into a separate process and present efficiency improvement strategies for each process. Elements would include processes such as: stopping at stations and traveling between stations. This scheme would be very easy for public transport managers and planners as well as researchers to understand and use. It would be less intuitive for the general public since their focus is on their particular trip rather than the vehicle trip. Passenger Process – The categorization scheme based on the passenger process would break-down each element of the passenger trip and present efficiency improvement
strategies for each of these processes. Elements would include travel to station and riding transit vehicle. Since this would be based on the passenger’s trip it would be easy for the general public to understand. It would also be easy for planners and researchers to use, but it has the disadvantage of not being as useful as the trip-based scheme in supporting the project objective. More specifically, the passenger process starts with the passenger’s trip to the public transport station/stop and ends with the passenger’s trip from public transport to his ultimate destination. Hardware – The categorization scheme based on hardware would consider improvement strategies for different physical elements of the system. Elements would include vehicle, control systems (e.g. traffic signals for road-based public transportation), and stations. This scheme would be logical for planners and researchers, but less so for the general public who are not likely to think in terms of (all) the physical elements involved in a public transport trip. Organizational Responsibility – The organizational responsibility-based scheme has the advantage that it organizes efficiency improvement strategies based on the public agency department that is responsible for implementing the strategies. In other words, improvements to the roadway would be organized under the roadway department. The processes and sub-processes can be made more efficient by implementing strategies designed to reduce travel time. The research project objective is to improve the communication of these strategies to public transport managers and planners. It proposes to achieve this objective by construct using a categorization scheme based on the tripbased processes and sub-processes. These processes are outlined below. 12 1. Trip Starting Process The “trip starting” process is critical to public transport operations since vehicles that do not start their routes on time generally fall further behind as they travel along their route (since they must pick-up more passengers at each stop than expected). This process is especially problematic since, as the latestarting vehicle falls further behind, the following vehicle catches-up with it (since it is picking up fewer passengers at each stop), causing vehicle bunching and significantly reducing service quality and attractiveness. 2. Travel Between Stations The “travel between stations” process consists of the time public transport vehicles spend moving between stations. There are two main parts of this process. The first consists of time spent moving between stations not including the acceleration and deceleration associated with station stops. For public transport vehicles using an exclusive right-of-way, only other transit vehicles will impact travel time between stations. Stop at Passenger Stations The “stop at passenger stations” process consists of the time spent by the public transport vehicle at a station. It consists of the following subprocesses:•
Door opening time – this consists of the time spent between stopping the vehicle and when the doors are completely open. Alighting time – this consists of the time it takes for passengers to alight the vehicle. Boarding time – this consists of the time it takes for passengers to board the vehicle. Door closing time – this consists of the time between when the doors start to close and when the vehicle can begin moving. Return to traffic time – this consists of the time it takes the vehicle to return to the travel lane from the bus stop. 3. Trip Ending Process the “trip ending process” completes the cycle and consists of: Travel to layover time – the time it takes the transit vehicle to travel from the route end point (last stop) to the layover point. The cycle then begins again with the trip starting process. PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION EFFICIENCY PROJECT The project objective is to encourage the implementation of public transport efficiency improvement strategies at the route level. The approach selected to obtain this objective is to better communicate results of academic and practical studies to practicing public transport managers and planners by developing a database of efficiency strategies and publishing this database on the internet. This chapter outlines a proposed organizational structure for the project’s internet site. 13 The database will have three types of users: public transport managers and planners, researchers, and interested members of the public. Researchers will be able to use the database to publicize the results of their research to practicing public transport managers and planners. This will help assist in the dissemination of academic results into practice increasing the relevance of research. Public transportation planners would be able to add information to the database on strategies they have implemented. Having this type of information available to the public will also help reduce the amount of time public agency planners need to spend explaining improvement strategies to interested individuals (they will be able to refer people). The public would not be able to add information to the database without special permission. EVALUATING TRANSPORTATION BENEFITS/CONCLUSION Transportation provides tremendous benefits, and various techniques can be used to measure these benefits. These are so large that it is difficult to calculate the total benefits of all transportation activities. However, even if such a number could be calculated it would have little practical use. In most planning situations the important factor is the
marginal (incremental) benefits provided by a particular policy or project compared with a Base Case. Marginal transportation benefits can be divided into these two major categories: Mobility and Access Benefits Mobility benefits result from increased travel, such as increased automobile mileage, increased transit or aviation trips, increased walking and cycling, and increased freight transport. Access benefits are similar to mobility benefits, but also include the benefits from access improvements that reduce the need for physical travel, such as more efficient land use, delivery services and telework. These reflect the incremental benefits compared with a reduced level of mobility or access, such as the benefits individuals and society gains from access to school, employment, shopping, friends and recreation activities. Efficiency Benefits Efficiency benefits result from more efficient travel, such as when travelers shift from driving to transit or ridesharing under urban-peak travel conditions, or when a consumer avoids a trip by telecommuting or teleshopping. These reflect the cost savings to individuals and society when transportation becomes more efficient (fewer total resources are consumed to provide a given benefit).
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