Description
This study aims at assessing two modern leadership styles: transactional leadership and transformational
leadership at Syrian universities. It also aims at exploring whether or not there are differences in
leadership styles caused by sector or follower demographics. A quantitative research paradigm was
employed. Using a questionnaire survey method, the data was collected from managerial employees at
two public and private universities. In total, 216 questionnaires were analyzed using SPSS. The findings
revealed that there is a high level of transactional leadership except one of its dimensions, management by
exception-passive, which occurred in a medium level. There is also a high level of transformational
leadership except one of its dimensions, individualized consideration, which occurred in a medium level.
Furthermore, the study found significant differences in leadership styles that are caused by follower
demographics, but not sector. Suggestions for Syrian universities are presented. Proposals for future
studies are highlighted in the study.
ARAB ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS JOURNAL 10 (2015) 1–8
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2214-4625/$ – see front matter © 2015 Holy Spirit University of Kaslik. Hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aebj.2014.11.001
* Rami Ayoubi. Tel.: +0-000-000-0000 ; fax: +0-000-000-0000.
E-mail address: [email protected]
Peer review under responsibility of Holy Spirit University of Kaslik.
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?????????
Leadership Styles at Syrian Universities and the Differences Caused by
Sector and Follower Characteristics
Rami Ayoubi (a*), Bayan Khalifa (b)
(a) (b) Damascus University, Syria
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A R T I C L E I N F O
Article history:
Received 19 August 14
Received in revised form
29 September 14
Accepted 06 November
14
Keywords:
Higher Education
Transformational
Leadership
Transactional Leadership
Syrian universities
????
?? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? .????????? ???????
????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ???????????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ? ??????? ????? ?? ???????? ???
.????????? ????? ?? ???????? ???????? ??? ???? ???? ???????? ???? ?? ???????? ??? ?? ? .??????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ??
????? ?? .????? ???? ????? ? ?????? 216 ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? SPSS . ???? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ???????
????????? ?????? ?? ? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? - ??? ???? ? ??????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ??? .????? ??????
? ? ??????? ?????????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??????
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?????? ??????? ??? ? ????????? ???????????? ??????? .?????? ? ??????? ??? ??? ?? ? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????? ???
????? ???????? ?? ? ? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? .???????? ???
A B S T R A C T
This study aims at assessing two modern leadership styles: transactional leadership and transformational
leadership at Syrian universities. It also aims at exploring whether or not there are differences in
leadership styles caused by sector or follower demographics. A quantitative research paradigm was
employed. Using a questionnaire survey method, the data was collected from managerial employees at
two public and private universities. In total, 216 questionnaires were analyzed using SPSS. The findings
revealed that there is a high level of transactional leadership except one of its dimensions, management by
exception-passive, which occurred in a medium level. There is also a high level of transformational
leadership except one of its dimensions, individualized consideration, which occurred in a medium level.
Furthermore, the study found significant differences in leadership styles that are caused by follower
demographics, but not sector. Suggestions for Syrian universities are presented. Proposals for future
studies are highlighted in the study.
© 2015 Holy Spirit University of Kaslik. Hosting by ElsevierB.V. All rights reserved.
2 ARAB ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS JOURNAL 10 (2015) 1–8
1 . ?????
?? ??????? ??? ??????? ???? ? .???????? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ?? (Galton, 1869)
. ??? ?? ? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????? ? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ? (Blake & Mouton, 1985) ????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?? .
?? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? :????? ???? ? ????????? ????????? ????????? (Hersey & Blanchard, 1982; Hooijberg & Choi, 2001) . ? ????????? ?????? ??? ??????? ????? ??
.???? ????? ??? ???????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ????
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?? ?????? (Dvir & Shamir, 2003; Moss et al., 2006; Voon et al., 2009) . ????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????? ? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??? ???? ??? ????
????? - ?????? ??? ? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? - .????? ?????? ??? ??
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? ????? ???? ?????? ? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? (Robbins & Coulter, 2005) ? . ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ? ? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ?
??????? ? ? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ? .???????? ??????? ?????? ??
?
?????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ?? ? ???????? ??????? :??????? ?? .????????? ???????
???????? ??????? ????? ???? - ????????? ??????? Transactional-Transformational Leadership Theory ???? ?? ??? ????????? ?? Burns ? ?????? ? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ?? Bass
and Avolio ? . ???? ?? ?? Burns ??????? ???? ??????? ???? ???????" ????? ???????? ? ????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?? "?????? ??? ??? ???????? ?? (Burns, 1978) ? . ???? ????? ??? ??????? ???
? ?????????? ??????? ????? ??? ????????? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ? ? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ?? ?? ????? .?????? ?? Burns ??????? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?????" ????? ????????? ???????
"?????? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ??? ??? Burns, 1978) ????????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ? ????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? .( ?
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(????????) ???????? Contingent Reward ? ????????? ?????? - ?????? Management by Exception–Active ? ? ????????? ?????? - ??????? Management by Exception–Passive .
???????? ????????
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????????? ?????? ?? ??? .
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????????? ??????
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???? ?????? - ??? ?????? ???? ?? ????????? ???? ? ??? ????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ? ? ???????? ?????? ????? ?? ?? (Bass, 1998) .
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???? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ? ???? ??? ? ???? ? ????? ????? ??? ?? ?? ????? (Bass & Avolio, 1994) .
? ???????? ??????? ???? ??? ? ??????? ?????? ???? ??? .?????? ??????? ???? ?? ???????? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ? ??
? .??? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????? ? ? ? ??? ????????? ??????? ??? ?? ? ? ? ?????? ?????
????????? ? ????? ??? ?????? (Cameron, 1981; Pounder, 1999) ???? ??? ?? . ? ????????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ? ? ??????? ? ? ???????? ??????? ? ?
???????? ?????? (Albulushi & Hussain, 2008; Bass, 1998; Bass & Avolio, 1994) ? . ?? ???????? ??? ??? ?? ? ???????? ??????? ??? ????? ? ??? ????????? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?
??????? ????? ? ? ????? ? ? ? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? (Basham, 2010; Cameron, 1981) .
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???? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ? ???????? ??? ????? ???? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ?? :??? ?? ??? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? .
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ARAB ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS JOURNAL 10 (2015) 1–8 3
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Robertson & Seneviratne, 1995; Solomon, 1986).
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???????? ????????? ????????? (Podsakoff et al., 1996) ? ? ??? ???? ??? ?? ????
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?????? ???? ???? ???????? ???? ?? ????? ???????? (Andersen, 2010) ? . ??? ?? ???
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???? ????? ??? ? ? ????????? ?? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ?????? ???? .????????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ?
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??? ???? ?????? ? ? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????
?????? Contingency Theory ? ?????? ????? - ????? Path-Goal Theory ? ???????? ??????? ????? Situational Leadership Theory ? ? ?????? ????? ????? - ????? Leader-Member
Exchange Theory ? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ??
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?? ?????? ? ???????? ?? ?????? ????????? ????????? ????? (Moss et al., 2006) ? . ???? ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ??? ? ????? ????
????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ? ? ? ??????? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ? ?? ? ?????? ??? ??????? ? .??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ????" ????? ??????? ??? ????? ??
? ? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????????? ? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ? ? ???? ????? ? ?? ? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? "??????? (Freiberg & Freiberg, 1996) .
? ? ?? ???? ????????? ??? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ??? .??????? ???????? ??
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?????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ???
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??????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ??? ????????? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ???? (Kalaluhi, 2013) ???? ??? ?? . ? ????? ????? ??????
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????? ? ? ? .?????? ?? ????? ???????? ????????? ??? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ????????? ?? (Baker et al., 2011) .
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?????? (Bellou, 2011) ????? ?????? ? .?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ??? (Ansoorian et al., 2003) ???? ?????? .????????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?? 1946 - 1964 ??????
??? ????? 1960 - 1980 ? . ??? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ? ? .??????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?
??? ???? ???? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ?? ????? ???? .????? ???? ??
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?? ? ????? ????? ?? (Hur, 2008) ??? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????
? .????????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ? :????????? ??? ?? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ?? .????? ??? ?? ????? ?????
(Boatwright & Forrest, 2000) ? ????????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ???????? ????????
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???? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? .?????? ??? ???? ? ? ?????? ?????? ? ? ????????
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? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ? .(?????? ??? ?????? ?????) ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?? ????????? ??? ??? ?????
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? ????? ?????? Quantitative Paradigm ? ???? . ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ? ??? .????? ??????? ????????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ???
? ??????? ???? ? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ? ??? ?? .???????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ? .?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?
? ??? ??? ?? ??? ? .??????? ? ??????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ? ? ???????? ???????? ??? ?????? ???????? (Mack et al.,2005) ??? .
??????? ??????? ?? ????????? ???????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ? ?????? ? . ?????? ??? ?? ???
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? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ? ??? ????? 330 ???? ? ??? .????? ???????? ??? ????????? ????? ?? ? .???????? ??????? ????? ????? 200 ???? ?????? ??????? - ????? 10 % ??
4 ARAB ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS JOURNAL 10 (2015) 1–8
????? ?????? ??????? 2183 ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? - . ??????? ?? 165 ??????? ? 160 ? .??????? ??????? ????? ????
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??????? ????? Covering Letter ? ????????? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? .??? ?????? ????? ????? ?????????
???? ????? ? ??? ????? ????? ? ?????? ?? ????????? ????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ? ? ????? ? ? ?????? ?????? ? ? ??????? ????? ????? ? ? ?????? ??????? ? ? ???????? ??????
??????? .
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(??????? ? ? ? ?? ? ? ????????? ??????? ? ??? 20 ) ????? 8 ?????? ?????? ? 4 ??????? ??????? ? 4 ??????? ???????? ? ? 4 .(??????? ?????????
??? ??? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ? .????????
:??????? ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ?? ?
:????? ?????? ? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ???????? ??? Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) ? ??? ?? ?? ????? (Avolio & Bass,
2004) ? ????? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ? .????????? ??? ?? .??????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ??
??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ????? : 4 ????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ???? /???? ????? ?? ?? ? ? ? ?? ?????? ??? ? .????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ??
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Cronbach's alpha ? ??? ?????? ???? ?? 0.6 ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ? ? .????????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ???????? ??? ????? ?? ? .?????? ??????? ????? ???? ??
??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? : Construct Validity ???? ??? ??? . ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???? ? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? - ? ???? ??????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ????
????? ???? ???? ???????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? - ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ? Confirmatory Factor Analysis ? . ???? ????? ??? ??? Loadings ??? ????????
?????? ????? ????? ? .????????? ?? ???? ???? ????????? ??? ???????? ???? ??????? ? 0.3 ? ???? .?????? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ? ?? 3 ? ????????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????
???????? ???? ?? ??? 0.3 ????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ? .???????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ? ???? ? . .???????? ?? ???????? ??????? ?? ? .??????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?????
6 . ??????? ???????? ?????
????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? SPSS ??? ?? ???? ???????? ????? ?? ? ????????? ????????? .????????? ??????? ??? ?? ?? ? ???? ??????? ????? ?
?
???? ??????? ???? ???
? ?????? ??????) ????????? ???????????? ???????
?
???? 1 .(
??? ? ???????? ????????? ?????? ?? ????? ? .??????? ????? ????????? ???? ??? ??????? ????????? ??????? 1 - 2.49 ?????? ? ??? ? 2.50 - 3.49 ?????? ? ??? ? 3.50 - 5 ??????) ?????? 2 .(
?????? ????? 2 ????????? ?????? ??? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? - ???? ? ??????? ??????? ? .????? ?????? ?????? ? ???????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ???
?? .????? ?????? ???? ? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ? ??????? ????????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ? .????? ?????? ?????? ? ??????? ????? ????
????????? ?????? ????? ???? ??? .?????
7 . ???????? ??????
? ??? .?????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ? ?? ?????? ? 3 ? ???????? ????????? .??????
?
???? ??????? ????? ????????? ?????????
? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?? ????????? ??? ?????? ???????????? MANOVA ? ? ? ???????) ???? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ? (????????? ??????? ? ??????? ????????? ?? ???? ?? ????
) (??????) ???????? ? ?????? .(
????? ? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? (P-value = 0.40 > 0.05) ? ? ??????? ??????? ???? ??????? .????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ? ?? ???? ???????
.?????? ?????
?????? ? ??????? ??????? ? ????? ???
?
???? ??????? ?? ????????? ???????????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ???????
MANOVA ? . ???????? ?? ???????? ?????? ??? ? ???????? ???????) ???????? ? ??? (????????? ??????? ??? ?????) ???????? ????????? ???? ? ? ????? ? ? ?????? ?????? ? ? ??????? ????? ????? ?
? ?????? ??????? ? ? (???????? ?????? ) ? ?????? ( . ????? ? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ? ? ????? ? ? ???? ????? ??????? ? ? ? ?????? ???????? (P-value = 0.62, 0.52, 0.37, 0.22 0.05) ???
?? ?? ?????? ????? ??? .??????? ? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? (P-value = 0.00, 0.02 < 0.05) ? ??? ? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? .?????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ??
?
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???? ? ????? ????? ???? ????? .??????? ?????? ???? ?? .??????? ??????? ???? .????????? ???????????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ?
? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???????? ????? ????? ??? ?? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????) 4 ( .
?????? ????? 4 ?? ??????? ??
?
?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? (P-value = 0.01 0.05) ? ????????? ??????? ??
?
?????? ?????? ??????? ????? (P-value = 0.02 0.05) ? . ???? ??????
????? ? ???????? ??????? ?? ?? ?? ? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??????? Tukey ?) ? ? ???????? ? ( .
????? ? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ???????? ???????? ?????? (P-value = 0.01 0.05) ? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? (P-value = 0.00
0.05) ??????) ????????? ???? ??? ??????? ? . 3 ( ??? ?????? ???? :????? ?????? ??? ??? .??? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???
.?????? ???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ????????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???????
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???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ????????? ?? ????? www.damascusuniversity.edu.sy
ARAB ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS JOURNAL 10 (2015) 1–8 5
?????? 1 - ????????? ???????????? ??????? ????? ? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ????? .
??????? ??????? ??????? ??????
??????
????? 160 74.1
??? 56 25.9
?????
??? 77 35.8
???? 138 64.2
?????
30 ??? ??? 116 54.0
31 - 40 67 31.2
41 - 50 23 10.7
51 ??? ??? 9 4.2
?????? ??????
??? ??? ????? 64 29.9
????? ???? 55 25.7
?????? ????? 77 36.0
???? ?????? 18 8.4
??????? ????? ?????
10 ??? ??? 129 60.6
11 - 20 60 28.2
21 ??? ??? 24 11.3
?????? ???????
???? ????? 58 38.9
???? ????? 85 57.0
???? ????? 6 4.0
???????? ??????
??? 63 29.4
? 151 70.6
?????? 2 - ??????? ????? ????????? ????????? ? ???????? ????????? .
??????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????
???????? ???????? 3.671 0.789 ?????
????????? ?????? - ?????? 3.758 0.722 ?????
????????? ?????? - ??????? 2.881 0.672 ?????
???????? ???????????? 3.576 0.585 ?????
?????? ????? 3.805 0.715 ?????
??????? ??????? 3.808 0.752 ?????
??????? ???????? 3.806 0.797 ?????
??????? ????????? 3.487 0.842 ?????
? ??????? ????? ???????? 3.795 0.741 ?????
?????? 3 - ? ???????? ????????? ????? ????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? :???????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????
? ???????? ?????? .
??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?
???????
???????
???????
????????
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?????? ????? 3.556 0.584 3.745 0.738
??? 3.635 0.590 3.939 0.738
????? ??? 3.592 0.625 3.778 0.775
???? 3.574 0.561 3.813 0.721
????? 30 ??? ??? 3.622 0.586 3.862 0.739
31 - 40 3.522 0.593 3.736 0.751
41 - 50 3.623 0.507 3.843 0.662
51 ??? ??? 3.370 0.673 3.369 0.788
?????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? 3.816 0.596 3.985 0.671
????? ???? 3.579 0.559 3.795 0.723
?????? ????? 3.486 0.481 3.722 0.684
???? ?????? 3.151 0.701 3.476 1.090
??????? ????? ????? 10 ??? ??? 3.624 0.581 3.855 0.721
6 ARAB ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS JOURNAL 10 (2015) 1–8
11 - 20 3.487 0.572 3.713 0.755
21 ??? ??? 3.615 0.632 3.734 0.827
?????? ???????
???? ????? 3.691 0.506 3.916 0.636
???? ????? 3.497 0.579 3.739 0.782
???? ????? 2.912 0.905 2.917 1.186
???????? ??????
??? 3.548 0.591 3.812 0.801
? 3.592 0.583 3.793 0.717
?????? 4 - ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? .
??????? ???? ?????
????????
?????
??????
???????
????????
????
F
????????
????????
? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????? 3.671 3 1.224 3.897 * 0.010
????????? ??????? 2.796 3 0.932 1.645 0.182
?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? 1.703 2 0.851 2.712 0.070
????????? ??????? 4.336 2 2.168 3.827 * 0.024
????? ???????? ??????? 41.752 133
??? ????????? ???? 75.352 133
???????
???????? ??????? 1892.320 146
????????? ??????? 2165.071 146
?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? 50.442 145
????????? ??????? 87.059 145
* ?????? ????? ??? ????? 0.05
?? ????? ? ???? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ? ?????? ?????? ??? ????????? ?????? ?????? (P-value = 0.00 0.05) ? ?????? ?????? ??? ? ?????? ?????? (P-value = 0.03 0.05) .
? ??????) ????????? ???? ??? ??????? 3 ( ??? ? .?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ??? :????? ? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????
.?????? ?????? ?? ????????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??????
8 . ? ??????? ????????
:??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ??
????? ?????? ? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???????? ?? ????????? ?????? ?? - ? ???????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? .????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???????
????????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??????? - ????? ??????? ????? ????? ??? .??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ? ??????? ????????? ??? ??? ?? .????? ?????? ??? ????
? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ? .??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ? ??? ? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??? .
?
???????
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????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????
??????? ???????? (Basham, 2010; Cameron, 1981) ???? ??? ? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??? .???????? ??? ???????
?? ??????? ????? ????? ? ? ???????? ???????? ???
?
???? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ? .?????? ???????? ? (Andersen, 2010; Arvonen, 2001) ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?? .
(Gill, 2009; Rosenau & Linder, 2003) ? ???? ???????? ????? ??? ???? ??? ???????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ? .???? ???????? ???? ?????? ?? ???
?
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?
?????? .????????? ?????? ???????
????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ? (Hur, 2008) ??? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? . ? .????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ??
?? ?? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ??? .??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ???
????? ??????? ????????? ??? ????????? ?? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ??? . ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ????????
?
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? :??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ? .????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????
??????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ?? :??????? ?????? 2011 - 2012 .
??? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? :???????? ?????? ? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ??? ? ??????? ??????? ???????????? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? .???????? ????? ????????
? ?? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ???
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???? ??
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?
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9 . ????????
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? ?? ???????? ? ??????? ???? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ? ??? ??? ???????? ???? ? ???????? ?????? ? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???
?
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.???????
ARAB ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS JOURNAL 10 (2015) 1–8 7
.? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? :???????? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????
???????? ????? ?????? ? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????? .
??????? ?????? ????
Roy's Largest
Root
???? F ?????
??????
????? ????????
????????
?????? 0.014 0.910 2 131.000 0.405
????? 0.007 0.471 2 132.000 0.626
????? 0.017 0.752 3 133.000 0.523
?????? ?????? 0.101 4.471 3 133.000 0.005 *
??????? ????? ????? 0.015 0.978 2 133.000 0.379
?????? ??????? 0.058 3.827 2 133.000 0.024 *
???????? ?????? 0.023 1.521 2 132.000 0.222
* ?????? ????? ??? ????? 0.05
.? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ???? ?? .
(?) ?????? ?????? (?) ?????? ?????? ????????? ??? ?????
?) - (?
???????? ????? ???????? ????????
??? ??? ????? ????? ???? 0.261 0.133 0.211
?????? ????? 0.340 0.115 0.019 *
? ?????? ??? 0.678 0.170 0.001 *
????? ???? ??? ??? ????? 0.261 - 0.133 0.211
?????? ????? 0.079 0.122 0.915
???? ?????? 0.417 0.175 0.086
?????? ????? ??? ??? ????? 0.340 - 0.115 0.019 *
????? ???? 0.079 - 0.122 0.915
???? ?????? 0.337 0.161 0.163
??? ?????? ? ??? ??? ????? 0.678 - 0.170 0.001 *
????? ???? 0.417 - 0.175 0.086
?????? ????? 0.337 - 0.161 0.163
* ?????? ????? ??? ????? 0.05
.? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ???? ?????? ????? .
(?) ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? (?) ???? ????????? ??? ?????
?) - (?
???????? ?????
???????? ????????
???? ????? ???? ????? 0.182 0.129 0.336
???? ????? 0.999 0.322 0.007 *
???? ????? ???? ????? 0.182 - 0.129 0.336
???? ????? 0.816 0.318 0.031 *
???? ????? ???? ????? 0.999 - 0.322 0.007 *
???? ????? 0.816 - 0.318 0.031 *
* ?????? ????? ??? ????? 0.05
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doc_803636703.pdf
This study aims at assessing two modern leadership styles: transactional leadership and transformational
leadership at Syrian universities. It also aims at exploring whether or not there are differences in
leadership styles caused by sector or follower demographics. A quantitative research paradigm was
employed. Using a questionnaire survey method, the data was collected from managerial employees at
two public and private universities. In total, 216 questionnaires were analyzed using SPSS. The findings
revealed that there is a high level of transactional leadership except one of its dimensions, management by
exception-passive, which occurred in a medium level. There is also a high level of transformational
leadership except one of its dimensions, individualized consideration, which occurred in a medium level.
Furthermore, the study found significant differences in leadership styles that are caused by follower
demographics, but not sector. Suggestions for Syrian universities are presented. Proposals for future
studies are highlighted in the study.
ARAB ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS JOURNAL 10 (2015) 1–8
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
ScienceDirect
j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er. com/ l ocat e/ aebj
HOSTED BY
Arab Society of
Faculties of Business,
Economic & Political
Sciences
2214-4625/$ – see front matter © 2015 Holy Spirit University of Kaslik. Hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aebj.2014.11.001
* Rami Ayoubi. Tel.: +0-000-000-0000 ; fax: +0-000-000-0000.
E-mail address: [email protected]
Peer review under responsibility of Holy Spirit University of Kaslik.
???? ? ??????? ???????? ?? ??????? ? ????? ? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ???????
?????????
Leadership Styles at Syrian Universities and the Differences Caused by
Sector and Follower Characteristics
Rami Ayoubi (a*), Bayan Khalifa (b)
(a) (b) Damascus University, Syria
:????????? ???????
?????? ???????
????????? ???????
???????? ???????
??????? ????????
A R T I C L E I N F O
Article history:
Received 19 August 14
Received in revised form
29 September 14
Accepted 06 November
14
Keywords:
Higher Education
Transformational
Leadership
Transactional Leadership
Syrian universities
????
?? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? .????????? ???????
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.????????? ????? ?? ???????? ???????? ??? ???? ???? ???????? ???? ?? ???????? ??? ?? ? .??????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ??
????? ?? .????? ???? ????? ? ?????? 216 ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? SPSS . ???? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ???????
????????? ?????? ?? ? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? - ??? ???? ? ??????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ??? .????? ??????
? ? ??????? ?????????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??????
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?
?????? ??????? ??? ? ????????? ???????????? ??????? .?????? ? ??????? ??? ??? ?? ? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????? ???
????? ???????? ?? ? ? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? .???????? ???
A B S T R A C T
This study aims at assessing two modern leadership styles: transactional leadership and transformational
leadership at Syrian universities. It also aims at exploring whether or not there are differences in
leadership styles caused by sector or follower demographics. A quantitative research paradigm was
employed. Using a questionnaire survey method, the data was collected from managerial employees at
two public and private universities. In total, 216 questionnaires were analyzed using SPSS. The findings
revealed that there is a high level of transactional leadership except one of its dimensions, management by
exception-passive, which occurred in a medium level. There is also a high level of transformational
leadership except one of its dimensions, individualized consideration, which occurred in a medium level.
Furthermore, the study found significant differences in leadership styles that are caused by follower
demographics, but not sector. Suggestions for Syrian universities are presented. Proposals for future
studies are highlighted in the study.
© 2015 Holy Spirit University of Kaslik. Hosting by ElsevierB.V. All rights reserved.
2 ARAB ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS JOURNAL 10 (2015) 1–8
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?? ??????? ??? ??????? ???? ? .???????? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ?? (Galton, 1869)
. ??? ?? ? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????? ? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ? (Blake & Mouton, 1985) ????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?? .
?? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? :????? ???? ? ????????? ????????? ????????? (Hersey & Blanchard, 1982; Hooijberg & Choi, 2001) . ? ????????? ?????? ??? ??????? ????? ??
.???? ????? ??? ???????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ????
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?? ?????? (Dvir & Shamir, 2003; Moss et al., 2006; Voon et al., 2009) . ????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????? ? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??? ???? ??? ????
????? - ?????? ??? ? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? - .????? ?????? ??? ??
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? ????? ???? ?????? ? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? (Robbins & Coulter, 2005) ? . ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ? ? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ?
??????? ? ? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ? .???????? ??????? ?????? ??
?
?????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ?? ? ???????? ??????? :??????? ?? .????????? ???????
???????? ??????? ????? ???? - ????????? ??????? Transactional-Transformational Leadership Theory ???? ?? ??? ????????? ?? Burns ? ?????? ? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ?? Bass
and Avolio ? . ???? ?? ?? Burns ??????? ???? ??????? ???? ???????" ????? ???????? ? ????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?? "?????? ??? ??? ???????? ?? (Burns, 1978) ? . ???? ????? ??? ??????? ???
? ?????????? ??????? ????? ??? ????????? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ? ? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ?? ?? ????? .?????? ?? Burns ??????? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?????" ????? ????????? ???????
"?????? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ??? ??? Burns, 1978) ????????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ? ????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? .( ?
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???????? ??????? ????? ??? ?? ? - ??? ?????? ? .???????? ??? ??
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(????????) ???????? Contingent Reward ? ????????? ?????? - ?????? Management by Exception–Active ? ? ????????? ?????? - ??????? Management by Exception–Passive .
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????????? ??????
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???? ?????? - ??? ?????? ???? ?? ????????? ???? ? ??? ????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ? ? ???????? ?????? ????? ?? ?? (Bass, 1998) .
? ????? ?? ???? ? ????? ?? ????????? ??????? ????? (
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????? ?????????) ?????? ????? :????? Idealized Influence ? ? ??????? ??????? Inspirational Motivation ? ? ??????? ????????
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????????? ? ????? ??? ?????? (Cameron, 1981; Pounder, 1999) ???? ??? ?? . ? ????????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ? ? ??????? ? ? ???????? ??????? ? ?
???????? ?????? (Albulushi & Hussain, 2008; Bass, 1998; Bass & Avolio, 1994) ? . ?? ???????? ??? ??? ?? ? ???????? ??????? ??? ????? ? ??? ????????? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?
??????? ????? ? ? ????? ? ? ? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? (Basham, 2010; Cameron, 1981) .
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???? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ? ???????? ??? ????? ???? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ?? :??? ?? ??? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? .
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ARAB ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS JOURNAL 10 (2015) 1–8 3
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?????????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ????? . ????????? ????????
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??????? ??? ??? ??? (Baldwin, 1987; Busch & Wennes, 2012; Rainey & Bozeman, 2000; Rainey et al., 1995;
Robertson & Seneviratne, 1995; Solomon, 1986).
???????? ???? ????? ?? ? ???????? ??
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???????? ????????? ????????? (Podsakoff et al., 1996) ? ? ??? ???? ??? ?? ????
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??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ??? (Bodla & Nawaz, 2010)
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?? ?????? ? ?????? ??? .??????? ??? ??? ?? ? ??????? ?????? ? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? .????? ????
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?????? ??????? ??? .???? ? ????? ??? ?????? ? ? ?????? ? ?????? ????? ????? ? ? ???????? ?????? (Andersen, 2010; Arvonen, 2001; Arvonen & Ekvall, 1999) .
??? ?? ??? ? ? ??????? ?? ???????? ??? ?
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??? ???
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?????? ???? ???? ???????? ???? ?? ????? ???????? (Andersen, 2010) ? . ??? ?? ???
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????? .????????? ?????? ???? ? ????? ????? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????????? ? ? ? ????? ? ???????? ??????? ? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ?
???? ????? ??? ? ? ????????? ?? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ?????? ???? .????????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ?
?
??? ???? ?????? ? ? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????
?????? Contingency Theory ? ?????? ????? - ????? Path-Goal Theory ? ???????? ??????? ????? Situational Leadership Theory ? ? ?????? ????? ????? - ????? Leader-Member
Exchange Theory ? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ??
?
?? ?????? ? ???????? ?? ?????? ????????? ????????? ????? (Moss et al., 2006) ? . ???? ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ??? ? ????? ????
????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ? ? ? ??????? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ? ?? ? ?????? ??? ??????? ? .??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ????" ????? ??????? ??? ????? ??
? ? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????????? ? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ? ? ???? ????? ? ?? ? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? "??????? (Freiberg & Freiberg, 1996) .
? ? ?? ???? ????????? ??? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ??? .??????? ???????? ??
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????? ? ? ? .?????? ?? ????? ???????? ????????? ??? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ????????? ?? (Baker et al., 2011) .
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?????? (Bellou, 2011) ????? ?????? ? .?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ??? (Ansoorian et al., 2003) ???? ?????? .????????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?? 1946 - 1964 ??????
??? ????? 1960 - 1980 ? . ??? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ? ? .??????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?
??? ???? ???? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ?? ????? ???? .????? ???? ??
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?? ? ????? ????? ?? (Hur, 2008) ??? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????
? .????????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ? :????????? ??? ?? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ?? .????? ??? ?? ????? ?????
(Boatwright & Forrest, 2000) ? ????????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ???????? ????????
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???? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? .?????? ??? ???? ? ? ?????? ?????? ? ? ????????
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? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ? .(?????? ??? ?????? ?????) ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?? ????????? ??? ??? ?????
? ??? ?????? ??? ?? :??????? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???
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???? ???????? Qualitative Paradigm
? ????? ?????? Quantitative Paradigm ? ???? . ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ? ??? .????? ??????? ????????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ???
? ??????? ???? ? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ? ??? ?? .???????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ? .?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?
? ??? ??? ?? ??? ? .??????? ? ??????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ? ? ???????? ???????? ??? ?????? ???????? (Mack et al.,2005) ??? .
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? 30 ????? ?? .????????? ??????? ????? ????? ????????? ????? ???????? ??? ????????? 21 ??????? ? 20 .??????? ??????? ????? ????
? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ? ??? ????? 330 ???? ? ??? .????? ???????? ??? ????????? ????? ?? ? .???????? ??????? ????? ????? 200 ???? ?????? ??????? - ????? 10 % ??
4 ARAB ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS JOURNAL 10 (2015) 1–8
????? ?????? ??????? 2183 ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? - . ??????? ?? 165 ??????? ? 160 ? .??????? ??????? ????? ????
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??????? ??????? ?????? - ??????? ?? . 77 ??????? ? 56 ??????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???? ???? ? .??????? ??????? ????? ???? 216 .???????
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???? ? ? ?????? ?????? ? ? ????? ??????? ? ??????? ????????? ? ? ?????? ???? ?? ? ? .???????? ???? ????? ??????? :??? ?? ??? ???????? ?????
??????? ????? Covering Letter ? ????????? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? .??? ?????? ????? ????? ?????????
???? ????? ? ??? ????? ????? ? ?????? ?? ????????? ????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ? ? ????? ? ? ?????? ?????? ? ? ??????? ????? ????? ? ? ?????? ??????? ? ? ???????? ??????
??????? .
?????? ????? ? ???? ? 32 ??????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ? ? ?? ? ? ???????? ??????? :?? ?? ? ? 12 ) ????? 4 ??????? ???????? ? ? 4 ????????? ?????? - ?????? ? ? 4 ????????? ?????? -
(??????? ? ? ? ?? ? ? ????????? ??????? ? ??? 20 ) ????? 8 ?????? ?????? ? 4 ??????? ??????? ? 4 ??????? ???????? ? ? 4 .(??????? ?????????
??? ??? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ? .????????
:??????? ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ?? ?
:????? ?????? ? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ???????? ??? Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) ? ??? ?? ?? ????? (Avolio & Bass,
2004) ? ????? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ? .????????? ??? ?? .??????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ??
??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ????? : 4 ????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ???? /???? ????? ?? ?? ? ? ? ?? ?????? ??? ? .????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ??
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:??????? ?????? ? .????????? ??????? ? ?????? ??? ???? ? ???????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? .???????? ???? ?? ?????? ????
Cronbach's alpha ? ??? ?????? ???? ?? 0.6 ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ? ? .????????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ???????? ??? ????? ?? ? .?????? ??????? ????? ???? ??
??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? : Construct Validity ???? ??? ??? . ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???? ? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? - ? ???? ??????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ????
????? ???? ???? ???????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? - ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ? Confirmatory Factor Analysis ? . ???? ????? ??? ??? Loadings ??? ????????
?????? ????? ????? ? .????????? ?? ???? ???? ????????? ??? ???????? ???? ??????? ? 0.3 ? ???? .?????? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ? ?? 3 ? ????????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????
???????? ???? ?? ??? 0.3 ????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ? .???????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ? ???? ? . .???????? ?? ???????? ??????? ?? ? .??????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?????
6 . ??????? ???????? ?????
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??? ? ???????? ????????? ?????? ?? ????? ? .??????? ????? ????????? ???? ??? ??????? ????????? ??????? 1 - 2.49 ?????? ? ??? ? 2.50 - 3.49 ?????? ? ??? ? 3.50 - 5 ??????) ?????? 2 .(
?????? ????? 2 ????????? ?????? ??? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? - ???? ? ??????? ??????? ? .????? ?????? ?????? ? ???????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ???
?? .????? ?????? ???? ? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ? ??????? ????????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ? .????? ?????? ?????? ? ??????? ????? ????
????????? ?????? ????? ???? ??? .?????
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? ??? .?????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ? ?? ?????? ? 3 ? ???????? ????????? .??????
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???? ??????? ????? ????????? ?????????
? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?? ????????? ??? ?????? ???????????? MANOVA ? ? ? ???????) ???? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ? (????????? ??????? ? ??????? ????????? ?? ???? ?? ????
) (??????) ???????? ? ?????? .(
????? ? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? (P-value = 0.40 > 0.05) ? ? ??????? ??????? ???? ??????? .????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ? ?? ???? ???????
.?????? ?????
?????? ? ??????? ??????? ? ????? ???
?
???? ??????? ?? ????????? ???????????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ???????
MANOVA ? . ???????? ?? ???????? ?????? ??? ? ???????? ???????) ???????? ? ??? (????????? ??????? ??? ?????) ???????? ????????? ???? ? ? ????? ? ? ?????? ?????? ? ? ??????? ????? ????? ?
? ?????? ??????? ? ? (???????? ?????? ) ? ?????? ( . ????? ? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ? ? ????? ? ? ???? ????? ??????? ? ? ? ?????? ???????? (P-value = 0.62, 0.52, 0.37, 0.22 0.05) ???
?? ?? ?????? ????? ??? .??????? ? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? (P-value = 0.00, 0.02 < 0.05) ? ??? ? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? .?????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ??
?
?????? ?????? ???????
???? ? ????? ????? ???? ????? .??????? ?????? ???? ?? .??????? ??????? ???? .????????? ???????????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ?
? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???????? ????? ????? ??? ?? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????) 4 ( .
?????? ????? 4 ?? ??????? ??
?
?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? (P-value = 0.01 0.05) ? ????????? ??????? ??
?
?????? ?????? ??????? ????? (P-value = 0.02 0.05) ? . ???? ??????
????? ? ???????? ??????? ?? ?? ?? ? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??????? Tukey ?) ? ? ???????? ? ( .
????? ? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ???????? ???????? ?????? (P-value = 0.01 0.05) ? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? (P-value = 0.00
0.05) ??????) ????????? ???? ??? ??????? ? . 3 ( ??? ?????? ???? :????? ?????? ??? ??? .??? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???
.?????? ???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ????????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???????
?????? ??????? ??????
?
???? ????????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??? .? ??????
???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ????????? ?? ????? www.damascusuniversity.edu.sy
ARAB ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS JOURNAL 10 (2015) 1–8 5
?????? 1 - ????????? ???????????? ??????? ????? ? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ????? .
??????? ??????? ??????? ??????
??????
????? 160 74.1
??? 56 25.9
?????
??? 77 35.8
???? 138 64.2
?????
30 ??? ??? 116 54.0
31 - 40 67 31.2
41 - 50 23 10.7
51 ??? ??? 9 4.2
?????? ??????
??? ??? ????? 64 29.9
????? ???? 55 25.7
?????? ????? 77 36.0
???? ?????? 18 8.4
??????? ????? ?????
10 ??? ??? 129 60.6
11 - 20 60 28.2
21 ??? ??? 24 11.3
?????? ???????
???? ????? 58 38.9
???? ????? 85 57.0
???? ????? 6 4.0
???????? ??????
??? 63 29.4
? 151 70.6
?????? 2 - ??????? ????? ????????? ????????? ? ???????? ????????? .
??????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????
???????? ???????? 3.671 0.789 ?????
????????? ?????? - ?????? 3.758 0.722 ?????
????????? ?????? - ??????? 2.881 0.672 ?????
???????? ???????????? 3.576 0.585 ?????
?????? ????? 3.805 0.715 ?????
??????? ??????? 3.808 0.752 ?????
??????? ???????? 3.806 0.797 ?????
??????? ????????? 3.487 0.842 ?????
? ??????? ????? ???????? 3.795 0.741 ?????
?????? 3 - ? ???????? ????????? ????? ????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? :???????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????
? ???????? ?????? .
??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?
???????
???????
???????
????????
??????? ??????? ???????? ???????
?????? ????? 3.556 0.584 3.745 0.738
??? 3.635 0.590 3.939 0.738
????? ??? 3.592 0.625 3.778 0.775
???? 3.574 0.561 3.813 0.721
????? 30 ??? ??? 3.622 0.586 3.862 0.739
31 - 40 3.522 0.593 3.736 0.751
41 - 50 3.623 0.507 3.843 0.662
51 ??? ??? 3.370 0.673 3.369 0.788
?????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? 3.816 0.596 3.985 0.671
????? ???? 3.579 0.559 3.795 0.723
?????? ????? 3.486 0.481 3.722 0.684
???? ?????? 3.151 0.701 3.476 1.090
??????? ????? ????? 10 ??? ??? 3.624 0.581 3.855 0.721
6 ARAB ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS JOURNAL 10 (2015) 1–8
11 - 20 3.487 0.572 3.713 0.755
21 ??? ??? 3.615 0.632 3.734 0.827
?????? ???????
???? ????? 3.691 0.506 3.916 0.636
???? ????? 3.497 0.579 3.739 0.782
???? ????? 2.912 0.905 2.917 1.186
???????? ??????
??? 3.548 0.591 3.812 0.801
? 3.592 0.583 3.793 0.717
?????? 4 - ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? .
??????? ???? ?????
????????
?????
??????
???????
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????
F
????????
????????
? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????? 3.671 3 1.224 3.897 * 0.010
????????? ??????? 2.796 3 0.932 1.645 0.182
?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? 1.703 2 0.851 2.712 0.070
????????? ??????? 4.336 2 2.168 3.827 * 0.024
????? ???????? ??????? 41.752 133
??? ????????? ???? 75.352 133
???????
???????? ??????? 1892.320 146
????????? ??????? 2165.071 146
?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? 50.442 145
????????? ??????? 87.059 145
* ?????? ????? ??? ????? 0.05
?? ????? ? ???? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ? ?????? ?????? ??? ????????? ?????? ?????? (P-value = 0.00 0.05) ? ?????? ?????? ??? ? ?????? ?????? (P-value = 0.03 0.05) .
? ??????) ????????? ???? ??? ??????? 3 ( ??? ? .?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ??? :????? ? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????
.?????? ?????? ?? ????????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??????
8 . ? ??????? ????????
:??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ??
????? ?????? ? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???????? ?? ????????? ?????? ?? - ? ???????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? .????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???????
????????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??????? - ????? ??????? ????? ????? ??? .??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ? ??????? ????????? ??? ??? ?? .????? ?????? ??? ????
? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ? .??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ? ??? ? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??? .
?
???????
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????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????
??????? ???????? (Basham, 2010; Cameron, 1981) ???? ??? ? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??? .???????? ??? ???????
?? ??????? ????? ????? ? ? ???????? ???????? ???
?
???? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ? .?????? ???????? ? (Andersen, 2010; Arvonen, 2001) ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?? .
(Gill, 2009; Rosenau & Linder, 2003) ? ???? ???????? ????? ??? ???? ??? ???????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ? .???? ???????? ???? ?????? ?? ???
?
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?
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????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ? (Hur, 2008) ??? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? . ? .????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ??
?? ?? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ??? .??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ???
????? ??????? ????????? ??? ????????? ?? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ??? . ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ????????
?
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? :??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ? .????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????
??????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ?? :??????? ?????? 2011 - 2012 .
??? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? :???????? ?????? ? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ??? ? ??????? ??????? ???????????? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? .???????? ????? ????????
? ?? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ???
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???? ??
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?
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9 . ????????
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? ?? ???????? ? ??????? ???? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ? ??? ??? ???????? ???? ? ???????? ?????? ? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???
?
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.???????
ARAB ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS JOURNAL 10 (2015) 1–8 7
.? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? :???????? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????
???????? ????? ?????? ? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????? .
??????? ?????? ????
Roy's Largest
Root
???? F ?????
??????
????? ????????
????????
?????? 0.014 0.910 2 131.000 0.405
????? 0.007 0.471 2 132.000 0.626
????? 0.017 0.752 3 133.000 0.523
?????? ?????? 0.101 4.471 3 133.000 0.005 *
??????? ????? ????? 0.015 0.978 2 133.000 0.379
?????? ??????? 0.058 3.827 2 133.000 0.024 *
???????? ?????? 0.023 1.521 2 132.000 0.222
* ?????? ????? ??? ????? 0.05
.? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ???? ?? .
(?) ?????? ?????? (?) ?????? ?????? ????????? ??? ?????
?) - (?
???????? ????? ???????? ????????
??? ??? ????? ????? ???? 0.261 0.133 0.211
?????? ????? 0.340 0.115 0.019 *
? ?????? ??? 0.678 0.170 0.001 *
????? ???? ??? ??? ????? 0.261 - 0.133 0.211
?????? ????? 0.079 0.122 0.915
???? ?????? 0.417 0.175 0.086
?????? ????? ??? ??? ????? 0.340 - 0.115 0.019 *
????? ???? 0.079 - 0.122 0.915
???? ?????? 0.337 0.161 0.163
??? ?????? ? ??? ??? ????? 0.678 - 0.170 0.001 *
????? ???? 0.417 - 0.175 0.086
?????? ????? 0.337 - 0.161 0.163
* ?????? ????? ??? ????? 0.05
.? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ???? ?????? ????? .
(?) ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? (?) ???? ????????? ??? ?????
?) - (?
???????? ?????
???????? ????????
???? ????? ???? ????? 0.182 0.129 0.336
???? ????? 0.999 0.322 0.007 *
???? ????? ???? ????? 0.182 - 0.129 0.336
???? ????? 0.816 0.318 0.031 *
???? ????? ???? ????? 0.999 - 0.322 0.007 *
???? ????? 0.816 - 0.318 0.031 *
* ?????? ????? ??? ????? 0.05
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