Description
simultaneously means that two or more actions happen at the same time. For example: The two car crashes happened simultaneously.The events do not have to occur in the same place, and do not have to be connected except by when they happen.
Jobs's Leadership: Simultaneously Distant and Close
I think it's [technology] brought the world a lot closer together, and will continue to do that. Steve Jobs, Rolling Stone (Goodwell, 2003)
This quote, taken from Jobs's interview with Rolling Stone magazine in 2003, describes Jobs's view of technology. In his mind, technology was about bringing people closer. This was his purpose and his guide for creating new technologies, both inside and outside Apple. His leadership style also reflected the issue of distance and closeness from his customers (followers).1 Steve Jobs was the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Apple for 14 years, and was described as a genius. He was an extraordinary person and was greatly admired by Apple fans and many others, not only those in the field of technology but by millions of people whose lives were influenced by his products. Typically, large company CEOs are thought to be distant from their employees and even more so from their customers. However, we argue that Steve Jobs managed to shape people's perceptions of him as a charismatic leader who was simultaneously close and distant. According to leadership theory, close charismatic leaders and distant charismatic leaders are perceived differently by followers. This has been suggested to result in different types of effects and outcomes. Close leaders usually influence their followers through their observable behaviors and their personal relationships with them, whereas distant leaders influence followers through image-building techniques. Leaders who can capitalize on a dual perception of both closeness and distance may benefit from being able to influence followers from both near and afar. T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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242 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 Our goal here is to draw from theories of leadership and distance (e.g., Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Napier & Ferris, 1993; Shamir, 1995; Waldman & Yammarino, 1999; Yagil, 1998) and use the case study of Steve Jobs to develop a conceptual framework to advance further theoretical thinking and empirical studies on the underlying mechanisms that enable leaders to influence their followers' perceptions of their distance from the leader and, ultimately, affect their behaviors and organizational-related outcomes. Thus, our aim here is threefold. First, we aim to present the idea that leaders can enact distance and create perceptions of distance and proximity, which are independent, to some extent, of their predetermined formal organizational distance (such as hierarchy, social distance and physical distance). Second, we aim to understand different mechanisms used by leaders to shape followers' perception of distance and proximity from them. Last, we aim to explore possible outcomes of leaders' distance and proximity. We use the case study of Steve Jobs to uncover the ways in which leaders are able to actively increase and decrease distance from their followers. By focusing on the case study of Steve Jobs, we will present the notion of leaders 'doing distance and proximity', by exploring different ways in which leaders actively shape the way they are perceived by followers as near or far from them. We suggest that Steve Jobs's dual-distance strategy (of eliciting both a sense of distance and a sense of proximity among followers) was a leadership strategy which distinguished Jobs from other business leaders (CEOs) and helped to create the myth of Jobs as an extraordinary and legendary leader. By being both close and distant, he stood out as a charismatic and unique leader, eliciting strong emotions and attachment between the customers and his products, as well as between the customers and himself as a leader. In the following, we start by presenting a short biography of the life of Steve Jobs. Then, drawing on behaviors and effects of close and distant leaders we demonstrate how he made use of both distant charisma and close charisma. We then focus on the notion of 'doing distance' and attempt to reveal and understand the enactment of leadership distance. Finally, we investigate four different mechanisms used by Steve Jobs to shape distance. We conclude with the implications of doing distance and consider future directions for research.
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THE LIFE OF STEVE JOBS Steven Paul Jobs was born on February 24th, 1955, to two unmarried graduate students who decided to give him up for adoption. During his high school years, he spent his free time at Hewlett-Packard in Silicon Valley California, where he met a fellow computer fan—Steve Wozniak (known as Woz). After graduating from high school, Jobs enrolled at Reed College in Portland, Oregon. However, soon after, he stopped going to the classes he was enrolled in and started attending the classes he found interesting and he officially dropped out after one semester. He spent the next 18 months attending classes he found interesting, such as calligraphy, which influenced the way he later designed typefaces and space between fonts for the Mac. After dropping out he worked for Atari, Inc. for some time. In 1976, at the age of 21, together with Wozniak he founded Apple Computers in his parents' garage in Los Altos, California. For the next nine years, Apple grew and Jobs and Wozniak invented different computers that changed the face of the computer industry—Apple I, Apple II (known as one of the first personal computers—PC—in the world) and the Macintosh (named after the McIntosh apple and intentionally misspelled). In 1985 Jobs was forced out of the company, after a power struggle with Apple's CEO at the time— John Sculley. He then founded another computer company called NeXT, bought the then failing Pixar Studios (named The Graphics Group at the time), which under his management became one of the leading animation studios in the world. The next chapter in Jobs's life started in 1996, when Apple was unprofitable and was facing possible bankruptcy. Apple decided to buy Jobs's company NeXT, and brought him back as interim chief executive (iCEO). In 2000 Jobs became the company's permanent CEO. In the years that followed Apple not only got back on track, but also became one of the most profitable companies in the world.2 Jobs led Apple to success by focusing the company on a few core products (desktop computers and laptops) as opposed to many different ones and by creating groundbreaking products like the MacBook Air. Apple prided itself in its sleek, elegant and easy to use computers like the iMac, MacBook and MacBook Air. The creation of new digital devices such as the iPod, iPhone and iPad, made Apple a household name around the world.
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244 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 In 2003 Jobs discovered he had pancreatic cancer. After a struggle of eight years, he passed away on October 5, 2011. His death was mourned by many around the world, and major TV networks in the United States and across the world interrupted scheduled programming to broadcast the news. Several key figures, including the President of the United States Barack Obama, British Prime Minister David Cameron and Microsoft founder Bill Gates commented on his death. Many Apple enthusiasts and Jobs's fans gathered in Apple stores around the world to pay their respects to Jobs. Below we explore the complex dynamic in which Steve Jobs enacted distance and proximity from Apple customers and wider audiences, in an attempt to uncover one of the processes that contributed to the strong bond that developed between Steve Jobs and Apple clients/fans.
LEADERSHIP AND CEO DISTANCE Leadership distance can be defined as an aspect of the organizational context (Cole, Bruch, & Shamir, 2009; Porter & McLaughlin, 2006) which influences leadership processes in organizations. Leadership distance has been described as resulting from leaders' hierarchical level, their physical location with regard to followers, psychological distance (perceived and actual similarity), the frequency of interactions with followers, and the quality of their relationship in general (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Napier & Ferris, 1993; Shamir, 1995; Yagil, 1998). The majority of previous theories and typologies presented distance as a stable facet of leadership context, which is an integral part of the position and role of the leader and is therefore under minimal control by the leader. We approach leadership distance in a somewhat different manner by conceptualizing leadership distance as a characteristic that can to some extent be defined, constructed, molded and influenced by leaders themselves. We draw on earlier work on 'sense-making' and 'sense-giving,' arguing that leaders are able to influence aspects of their distance and the ways followers interpret it, by creating a perception of distance or proximity through manipulation of their messages and personal image. Through the transcendence of inherent dimensions of distance, leaders can influence and shape followers' perceptions of their distance. In this chapter we explore the ways in which Steve Jobs T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 245 attempted to influence his followers' perception of him as a leader and their behavior toward Apple as a company, through his manipulation of leader distance. In our analyses of the followers we focus only on Apple customers, and do not refer to Apple employees. As Apple's CEO, Jobs was at the top of the hierarchy and was likely to be perceived as distant by followers. Companies' CEOs are distant from their followers on different dimensions. They are physically distant, as their employees and customers are usually scattered across the country or are located in other countries, and their offices are usually some distance from their employees. CEOs are also socially and psychologically distant. Theydiffer from their followers in many ways including their job profiles, status, power, and demographic characteristics. They might also be perceived as dissimilar to followers on other characteristics such as values and general personality (e.g., being achievement-oriented, very successful, and rich). Since CEOs lead a large number of followers, they rarely interact directly with their followers, and when they do, it is at best a unilateral interaction, in which the leader presents his or her strategy or vision. This is rarely a reciprocal conversation between two equals. According to Waldman and Yammarino (1999), CEOs can be close to their followers; however, these followers are those with whom they have direct working relationships; namely the top management team. With the majority of their followers they have a 'distant relationship' that includes symbolic behaviors and a pre- sentation of their vision (Waldman & Yammarino, 1999). Therefore, CEO leadership is seen as a distant form of leadership, one that is not a part of the followers' everyday life and one that is characterized by leaders' use of impression-management strategies and followers' attributions processes toward the leader. In this chapter we explore a different case, a CEO whose unusual and unique behavior created a different type of leadership and perception of distance that is simultaneously distant and close. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
DUAL-DISTANCE STRATEGIES: THE PERCEPTION OF STEVE JOBS AS A CLOSE AND DISTANT LEADER Close and distant leaders have been conceptualized as possessing and demonstrating different characteristics and behaviors and as having T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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246 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 different influences on their subordinates (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Cole et al., 2009; Shamir, 1995; Yagil, 1998). Distant charismatic leaders are perceived as having extraordinary qualities and are perceived in general as more heroic figures (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Shamir, 1995; Yagil, 1998), as having more courage and as being more persistent (Shamir, 1995). Attributions they elicit are based upon their presentation of their ideas (Yagil, 1998), their articulation of a vision and their rhetorical skills (Shamir, 1995), as well as on organizational performance cues and imagebuilding techniques, which create an ideal image of the leader (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002). On the other hand, close charismatic leaders are often described in a more realistic and less ideal manner than distant leaders. Close charismatic leaders are usually described in terms of their personal qualities and behaviors (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Shamir, 1995) and serve as behavioral role model for their followers (Yagil, 1998; Shamir, 1995). Thus, the literature suggests that close and distant charismatic leaders are portrayed and perceived as two different prototypes of leadership who demonstrate different traits, behaviors and characteristics. Distant charismatic leaders are perceived as more heroic figures, whereas close charismatic leaders are perceived as more humane. We contend that Steve Jobs represented a unique leader in that he was able to incorporate both aspects as a leader. He actively shaped a sense of distance, in that he was perceived as 'larger than life' and a sense of proximity, in that he could also be perceived as a 'close friend.' Jobs as a leader clearly enacted both closeness and distance. Below we analyze and illustrate this effect. We first discuss Steve Jobs as a distant charismatic leader and then show how he was perceived as a close leader. To do so we make use of a variety of supplementary material including daily newspapers and magazine articles, popular press articles, online 'blog' posting, YouTube videos, Apple advertisements, books on the life of Steve Jobs and documentary movies about Jobs's life and Apple 'fans.' Jobs as Characterized by Distant Charisma One of the key characteristics of distant charismatic leaders is their presentation of a vision (Shamir, 1995; Waldman & Yammarino, 1999; Yagil, 1998), which is an idealized image of the future (Conger & Kanungo, 1998; Shamir, 1995). Among Jobs's most renowned characteristics was his vision for the technology industry. Fortune's technology reporter Miguel Helft T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 247 wrote in Jobs's obituary that "On Wednesday, America lost its most successful chief executive, the technology industry lost its greatest visionary, and Silicon Valley lost a giant whose influence will be felt for years to come" (2011). In a movie by the Discovery Channel broadcast after his death, Michio Kaku, a physicist from the City College of New York, said "Steve Jobs had a great vision" (Halpin, 2011). He is also described in the movie as "the guy who envisioned a computer in every desk, an ear-bud in every ear and a device that will take multitasking to a whole new level. He didn't just envision. He made it happen" (Halpin, 2011). In the press, Jobs was presented as " a man who changed the way we live. The word used most often is 'visionary'" (Claburn, 2011). Also metaphorically he was portrayed as a person who "reached for the stars and pulled a few down to earth for the rest of us to enjoy" (Lappin, 2011). Almost every description of Jobs in the media included presenting him as a visionary. By presenting a vision and pursuing it throughout his life, Jobs exemplified a major characteristic of distant leaders. However, his vision presentations would not have been complete without his famed rhetoric skill, which has been described as an ability to mold reality and make others perceive it as he wished—his "reality distortion field" (Isaacson, 2011a). Rhetorical skills have also been defined as a key characteristic of distant charismatic leaders (Shamir, 1995; Waldman & Yammarino, 1999; Yagil, 1998). As the front man of Apple, Steve Jobs was in charge of the company's unveiling of new products and services in the form of the Apple keynote speeches at major Apple events. The keynote speeches were very popular and well known all around the world: people would arrive a day early to the Macworld and Apple Expo conferences and camp out near the entrance to get a good seat for the keynote speech (Shely, 2009). In these keynotes Jobs demonstrated his unique rhetoric skill, often eliciting great applause from the excited audience. Internet bloggers and Apple fans dubbed these speeches 'Stevenote' (Cult of Mac, 2011; 'Stevenote', n.d.), to reflect their special nature and appeal. Whenever he was presenting to the crowds, Jobs was welcomed with great applause by the audience and managed to elicit enthusiasm and acceptance from them. One example is the audience's reaction to Jobs's announcement at the 1997 Macworld Expo, that Microsoft was investing $150 million in Apple in order to help the company during its financial crisis. The audience was not happy with the news and expressed it, as they booed at Jobs's announcement. As a reaction, Jobs delivered an unexpected sermon emphasizing the importance of the T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
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248 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 relationship with Microsoft, resulting in the audience's approval of the step. This event demonstrates Jobs's ability to shape and influence public opinion through his well-calculated and elaborate rhetorical skill. Many times Jobs's exceptional rhetorical skill was compared to that of other CEOs as can be seen in articles that appeared in the Guardian:
If the chief executive of Cadbury-Schweppes speaks at a conference, or Nike's boss introduces a new kind of trainer, you might expect to see it covered in specialist magazines, then quickly forgotten. But on Tuesday a chief executive will stand up and announce something, and within minutes it will be scrutinized across the web and on stockbrokers' computers. It will be in newspapers. They'll talk about it for months. That chief executive is Steve Jobs, and I know why that speech makes an impact. To a casual observer it is just a guy in a black shirt and jeans talking about some new technology products. But it is in fact an incredibly complex and sophisticated blend of sales pitch, product demonstration and corporate cheerleading, with a dash of religious revival thrown in for good measure. It represents weeks of work, precise orchestration and intense pressure for the scores of people who collectively make up the "man behind the curtain" . . . When Apple announces something new, people pay attention. This is due, in large measure, to Steve and the way he delivers Apple's messages. (Evangelist, 2006)
These examples demonstrate Jobs's rhetorical skill, one of his unique characteristics that differentiated him from other executives in the business world, which reinforced his image as a distant charismatic leader. Perceptions of distant leaders are also influenced by organizational performance cues. Starting in 1996, when Jobs returned to Apple, and especially during the 2000s, Apple garnered vast success and popularity among customers all around the world. This success and customer loyalty was mainly attributed to Jobs. For example, Forbes contributor Scott Goodson was asked why Apple's customers are forgiving and loyal to the company, even when there are issues and problems with the product. His answer was "Well, it's mainly because of the late, great Steve Jobs. Apple is Steve Jobs. Steve Jobs is Apple. People feel like they have a personal relationship with Apple because they're essentially thinking of Steve" (Goodson, 2011). Apple's success thus served as a basis for the evaluation of Jobs as a leader. Apple is Steve Jobs, and hence its success is his. This T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 249 quote demonstrates another aspect of Jobs's distant leadership style—the heroic perception of the leader. Distant leaders are usually perceived as heroic and extraordinary individuals, who have special characteristics that make them the successful leaders they are (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Shamir, 1995). Jobs was presented many times as the 'hero that saved Apple' when he returned to the company in 1997 (Macworld, 2011; Shinal, 2011). The extraordinary attributions, were also reflected in the financial markets' response to his medical leaves throughout his illness. Every one of his medical leaves or news about his health influenced Apple's stock, with the deterioration in Jobs's health leading to a decline in Apple stock. All the above demonstrate the perceptions of Jobs as a distant charismatic leader. He was seen as extraordinary and heroic, able to articulate a vision and highly capable of presenting it in a manner that excited followers. However, as shown in Goodson's comment (2011), Steve Jobs was not the usual CEO or distant leader. In Jobs's case people felt that they had a personal relationship with Apple, because they felt as though they had a personal relationship with Jobs himself. Thus, Jobs's image as a leader also encompassed characteristics, personality traits, behaviors and relationships with followers that have been found in previous research to be attributed to close charismatic leaders (Shamir, 1995; Waldman & Yammarino, 1999; Yagil, 1998). Jobs as Characterized by Close Charisma Close charismatic leaders tend to be described in terms of their expertise, competence and intelligence (Shamir, 1995). These traits were frequently used to describe Jobs (Isaacson, 2011b; The Economist, 2011). Jobs was also known for setting very high standards, another trait ascribed to close charismatic leaders (Shamir, 1995). Google's engineer, Vic Gundotra worked with Jobs for a while. One Sunday he received a phone call from Jobs, who had "something urgent to discuss" with him (Gundotra, 2011). The urgent matter was the yellow gradient of the letter O in the Google logo when browsing on the iPhone. This is one of many examples demonstrating Jobs's concern that even the smallest details had to be perfect in his products, thus setting high standards for those with whom he worked. Close charismatic leaders are also defined in terms of their effects on followers, which also characterized Jobs. Role modeling was suggested as one of the effects attributed to close charismatic leaders. Steve Jobs was referred to as a role model for hard work and success: T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
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Jobs may be a multibillionaire, but that hasn't cut into his work ethic. He brings an entrepreneur's energy to tasks many CEOs would see as beneath them, whether it's personally checking the fine print on partnership agreements or calling reporters late in the evening to talk over a story he thinks is important. (Burrows, Grover, & Green, 2006)
During his life and after his death there was much debate about whether Jobs was a good or a bad role model, but many times he was referred to as role model (e.g. Hepp, 2011; Subramaniya, 2009). In his commencement speech at Stanford University in 2005 Jobs advised the graduates that "your time is limited so don't waste it living someone else's life," advice which resonated with Kamael Ann Sugrim, a graduate of the class. She says she was inspired by Jobs to carve her own path, just as he did for himself (Halpin, 2011). On the memorial webpage to Jobs, an Apple customer wrote "I just wanted to say Steve jobs was and still is my idol. He made me want to chase MY dreams and not the world's" (Amanda; http://www.apple.com/stevejobs/). Role modeling was also found to be related to general attribution of charisma to close leaders, but not to distant leaders (Yagil, 1998). As Steve Jobs was frequently referred to as a role model, this characteristic is a good indication of a leadership style that increased proximity. Identification with the leader is described as a fundamental characteristic of charismatic leadership (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Shamir, 1995), which also serves as a power source for the leader. In writings on Steve Jobs, the sense of identification from a stance of closeness is evident. When describing Jobs one interviewee said "If you ask me what my three major influences were, they've got to be, you know—my dad, John Lennon and Steve Jobs" (Shely, 2009). Many messages on Steve Jobs's memorial webpage reflected a similar sense of personal identification and close attachment (http://www.apple. com/stevejobs/). Nevertheless, the most interesting thing about Jobs's leadership was the way people all over the world felt close to him and felt they had a personal relationship with him. Individuals did not know Steve Jobs personally but felt a connection to him, were inspired by him and were emotionally attached to him, something that became very noticeable after his death. One of the interviewees in the movie MacHeads (Shely, 2009) said "I'm willing to follow him; I think that whatever he says is fine with me. You're T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 251 great Steve I will always love you." After his death, the Apple headquarters and Apple stores around the world became pilgrimage sites where people left flowers, notes, greeting cards and apples. Apple created a webpage called "Remembering Steve," where people could write messages to and about Jobs (http://www.apple.com/stevejobs/). Over a million people wrote messages on the webpage, expressing their sadness and thoughts. While admiration is related to both close and distant charismatic leadership, positive affect has mainly been ascribed to close charismatic leaders (Napier & Ferris, 1993; Shamir, 1995). Individuals felt very strong emotions toward Jobs as can be seen from their messages at the memorial page. For example, Zach wrote "I can't believe the person I have looked up for many years is now gone . . . I am deeply saddened by it"; Amanda wrote "You will truly be missed and we'll never forget! . . . steve UR [you are] always in our heart no matter what"; Chuck wrote "you'll never know how you changed my life. you've touched every person on this earth with a smile. thank you"; and John wrote "I feel as if I've lost a close friend. One that I've never met, but was part of my life every day." Many of these messages are phrased as personal letters to Jobs himself, reflecting the deep personal connection his customers/admirers felt for him. Thus, Steve Jobs was perceived and experienced by his customers simultaneously as a distant heroic charismatic leader, as well as a close and humane charismatic leader. These perceptions were partially shaped and molded by Jobs himself through his intentional and unintentional actions, which we define as actions of "doing distance." 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
DOING DISTANCE: THE ENACTMENT OF LEADERSHIP DISTANCE As human beings we shape and construct our physical and social environment, and to some extent the environment can be seen as a product of our creation. Through this process individuals also influence others' perceptions of themselves and various aspects of reality (Reicher, Haslam, &Hopkins, 2005). Thus leadership distance can be conceptualized not only as a predetermined characteristic of leadership or the context, but also as an attribute that can be crafted and controlled to some extent by the
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252 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 individual (i.e., the leader). Hence individuals can actively influence their perceived distance from others by enacting distance or 'doing distance.' The notion of 'doing distance' encompasses a perception of leadership distance as a flexible and dynamic construct that can be influenced, shaped, re- shaped and transformed in the process of leaders' interactions with their followers. The enactment of 'doing distance' is one way in which leaders take part in the process of 'meaning making' and 'sense making' (for meaning making see: Ashforth, Harrison, & Corley, 2008; Bartunek, Krim, Necochea, & Humphries, 1999; Sharma & Grant, 2011). While being novel to the field of leadership and distance, various streams of the leadership literature have presented leaders as creators of meaning (Ashforth et al., 2008; Bartunek et al., 1999; Conger, 1989). One such theoretical direction can be found in the work of Gardner and Avolio (1998), who make use of the dramaturgical perspective to understand charismatic leaders as carriers and constructors of meanings. According to their approach, charismatic leaders create meanings in social situations by engaging in "performances" of impression management and expressing themselves in different ways that are designed to shape the situation, events and the leaders' image according to their perceptions (Gardner & Avolio, 1998). The impression management process includes four behaviors derived from the dramaturgical perspective: framing, scripting, staging and performing (Gardner & Avolio, 1998). Framing is defined as "a quality of communication that causes others to accept one meaning over another" (Fairhurst & Sarr, 1996, p. xi). Fairhurst and Sarr's (1996) definition of framing defines leaders as construing social reality for themselves and their followers. It is about explaining and presenting people and the world as the leader sees it. The second is scripting, which is defined as "the development of a set of directions that define the scene, identify actors and outline expected behavior" (Benford & Hunt, 1992, p. 38). The third element is staging, which refers to the development and manipulation of symbols such as physical appearance, settings props and other artifacts (Gardner & Avolio, 1998). Goffman (1959) includes wardrobe and grooming as an extension of one's personality, and such elements of appearance are often used by leaders, for example when a commander wears medals on his uniform as symbols of his esteem and power (Gardner & Avolio, 1998). Staging also includes manipulating the mass media, for example when business leaders appear in the company's commercials (Bryman, 1992; Conger, 1989; Gardner & Avolio, 1998). Finally, performing is defined by T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 253 Gardner and Avolio (1998) as exemplification and self-promotion. This process is used by charismatic leaders. We draw on the work of Gardner and Avolio (1998) and contend that one of the major ways in which leaders construct meanings and make use of framing, scripting, staging, and performing strategies is that of 'doing distance.' We suggest that the manipulation of distance and proximity by leaders is an active means that enables leaders to build their image, influence the relationship between the leader and his or her followers, and influence followers' performance in different work and organizational tasks. Thus 'doing distance,' by shaping followers' perspectives of the leader as near and far, both physically and psychologically, includes the use of different mechanisms such as different leader behaviors, use of language, construction of artifacts and symbols, and different forms of relating to followers. Below we explore several such mechanisms of 'doing distance' used by Steve Jobs. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
MECHANISMS FOR CREATING DISTANCE AND PROXIMITY As the CEO of a large company, Steve Jobs was first and foremost a distant leader. He ran a multibillion dollar company and was in charge of tens of thousands of employees. The company interacted with millions of customers around the globe. Thus, 'objectively' he was physically and socially distant from his customers and did not interact directly with most of them. However, he managed to transcend the inherent distance of his position from Apple's customers by acting in different ways that made his customers feel close to him. We identified four mechanisms that were used by Steve Jobs to construct and transform his followers' sense of distance into a sense of proximity. These are the use of artifacts, youth and playfulness, intimacy with the product and the leader, and visibility and close interaction with customers. These different forms of 'doing distance' are discussed below. Artifacts Artifacts are defined as "artificial products, something made by human beings and thus any element of a working environment" (Hornby, 1974, p. 43). In the literature, artifacts are defined as "the phenomena that you T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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254 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 would see, hear and feel" (Schein, 2004, p. 23), they are intentionally made products perceived by individuals (Gagliardi, 1992). These definitions include not only physical objects, but also social constructs such as language, logos and symbols (Baruch, 2006; Cappetta & Gioia, 2006). It was argued that artifacts are the most superficial aspect of culture (Schein, 1990); however, more recent work considers them as influential factors that have a vast significance for individuals and organizations (Cappetta &Gioia, 2006; Rafaeli & Pratt, 2006). Through the use of artifacts, individuals communicate to others who they are (Pratt & Rafaeli, 2001). This suggests that artifacts are powerful symbols used by individuals and organiza- tions to convey deep meanings about themselves and their desired image (Cappetta & Gioia, 2006). Two important types of artifacts were used by Steve Jobs to construct his figure as that of a close leader—his attire, and the Apple logo and name.
Jobs's Attire
Clothing is an artifact which communicates powerful messages about the person (Rafaeli & Pratt, 1993) and serves as 'sensegivers' to influence others' perceptions and understanding of reality (Cappetta & Gioia, 2006). Different aspects of attire that were discussed as relevant to this symbolic process are colors of dress, dress style and the material of the items (Rafaeli & Pratt, 1993). Clothing, as symbols, can reflect relationships, since it reveals the nature of the connection between two individuals by communicating the difference and similarities between the individuals involved (Pratt & Rafaeli, 2001). Rafaeli and Pratt (1993) proposed that dress style elicits attributions of power and status, since there are dress styles that symbolize higher status. Rollman (1977; in Rafaeli & Pratt, 1993) found that professors who dressed more casually (jeans, sneakers) were seen as having less status than their counterparts who dressed more formally. One of the major ways in which Steve Jobs shaped the perception of distance from his customers was his dress code. Jobs's dress style was unique, especially when compared to other executives, even in the less formal High Tech industry. Steve Jobs was known for his informal attire, and his trademark black turtleneck shirt, jeans and a pair of sneakers were the clothes he wore at every keynote presentation. These were his 'uniform,' his 'signature style.' Jobs explained that he wanted to have a uniform for all of Apple's employees to create a bond between them and the company. T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 255 When they refused, he decided to create his own personal uniform which would be identified with him (Isaacson, 2011a). It has been claimed that in the workplace men tend to have less freedom with regard to the choice of attire, and are expected to wear a suit or a professional looking shirt and pants (Burgoon, Guerrero, & Floyd, 2010). However, unlike other CEOs, or even the image of a typical executive, Jobs did not wear suits or other formal garments. He wore casual clothing, the kind one would not expect from a person in such a position of power and wealth. Thus, Jobs's dress style did not communicate power or status. His style defined him less as a high-powered High Tech executive, but more as a closer figure with less power distance. In addition, the informality and suggested youth of his dress was suggestive of similarities between Jobs's dress style and that of his customers. As clothes are used to point to similarities and differences (Pratt & Rafaeli, 2001), using clothes to enhance or create such similarities can help create perceptions of proximity. By dressing like his customers, rather than in an expensive and formal manner, Jobs created a perception of similarity between himself and his customers, conveying a message of proximity and closeness with them. Thus, through his carefully chosen attire, Steve Jobs manipulated his perceived social distance and created a sense of social closeness between himself and his customers. Furthermore, clothes can be used to distinguish people (Cappetta & Gioia, 2006), and Jobs's attire set him apart from other CEOs, such as Bill Gates. Jobs and Gates were a part of similar circles as of the 1970s when both took part in the Homebrew Computer Club, to the 2000s when they were the heads of the two largest computer companies in the world. Unlike Gates, who was usually seen wearing suits and button-down shirts, as most CEOs do, Jobs's dress style fit the 'cool kid' image. In a parody animation movie portraying a cartoon figure of Jobs versus a cartoon figure of Gates in a competition scene, Gates is portrayed as the computer nerd and Jobs as the 'cool' guy (e.g., spiky hairstyle, jeans, informal outfit, sneakers) (Faure-Brac, 2007). This 'cool' image of Jobs allowed him to overcome the image of the 'geek'3 and the possibly remote genius and weirdo profile. This perhaps made him less of an outsider to the general public (perhaps creating a positive image to his fellow geek customers). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
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The Apple Name and Logo
Logos and names are artifacts that represent and symbolize companies, and represent the organization (Baruch, 2006; Schultz, Hatch, & Ciccolella, 2006). They are graphic images that are used to create an image of an organization, communicate a message and to create certain impressions of the organization (Baruch, 2006). Logos influence individuals both on a logical conscious level and a more emotional unconscious level, since they elicit a deep intuitive experience of meaning (Baruch, 2006). Thus the Apple name and logo are artifacts that communicate messages defining Apple and Steve Jobs. In 1975 when Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak decided to turn their computer building hobby into a business, Jobs suggested the name Apple Computer Inc. He explained that "It sounded fun, spirited and not intimidating. Apple took the edge off the word computers" (Isaacson, 2011a, p. 63). Isaacson explained that the choice to name it 'Apple' was a smart choice "the word instantly signaled friendliness and simplicity" (2011a, p. 63). In 1979 Apple started working on a new computer model (which Jobs took charge of in late 1980), named Macintosh (after the McIntosh apple cultivar). It was nicknamed—and has been ever since—the Mac, continuing Apple's attempts to portray computers as friendly. Another aspect of the Apple logo is that it is an image of an apple with a bite taken out of it. The actual figure of the apple makes it seem concrete and familiar (Trope & Liberman, 2010), something that customers can easily touch and hold.4 The bite also makes the logo seem more tangible, making it easy for the customers to imagine that they had actually taken a bite.5 In contrast, the IBM, Intel or Microsoft's logos are their names. Rather than images that represent them, they represent themselves through abbreviations that reflect computers. For example Intel stands for the Integrated Electronics Corporation. Jobs and Apple chose to enhance their image by using a fun colorful image to symbolize their company (later it would turn into a sleek image). Thus, through the manipulation of the logo and firm name Apple and Jobs portrayed themselves as 'friends' with their public and as part of the same social group as their followers. This enabled Jobs to create a sense of closeness with the customers. A logo is also used to distinguish a company from others, to represent its distinctive identity and heritage, and convey a central idea or a vision (Schultz et al., 2006). By using an image that communicates friendliness, T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 257 simplicity and fun, Jobs and Apple differentiated themselves from other computer companies which were then depicted as formal and rigid. An example of this depiction of other companies can be seen in Apple's famous "Big Brother" commercial for the first Macintosh that aired during the SuperBowl in 1984. The commercial hinted at an Orwellian "1984" scenario—men marching while listening to the "Big Brother" presented on a large screen. Then a young woman holding a large hammer runs in and throws it at the screen: the narrator explains that Apple will be introducing the Macintosh, saying: "And you'll see why 1984 won't be like "1984"" (miniroll32, 2008). Jobs and Apple used the name and logo of the company to portray a different image to their customers, as a friendly company that poses an alternative to the big computer giants. This young and rebellious image created closeness between Jobs and his customers. He was 'on their side' in the battle against 'Big Brother.' Jobs and his customers are one social group fighting the 'mean companies.' This image suggests some similarity in values and characteristics between Jobs and his customers, thus creating a sense of closeness between them. Youth and Playfulness
Creating a Youthful Image
CEOs and the majority of their customers are socially and psychologically distant due to the gap in status, power, and (often) their seniority. A second mechanism that Jobs used to decrease this social distance was to use images and concepts of youth. Youth refers to a certain mindset, an attitude of freshness, vigor or spirit one holds, regardless of their actual age. Therefore, youth brings to mind informality and fun, images which are quite the opposite of the common image of a CEO (someone serious and distant who works hard and does not play). When Jobs described and referred to himself as young, this framing implied he was psychologically closer to his customers. He also took advantage of Gardner and Avolio's other processes of scripting, staging and performing (1998). Jobs presented himself as young in several ways. He was portrayed, or casted as a 'cool,' young, rebellious genius. This notion is emphasized in different stages of his life story. For example, in all the historical articles and movies on the beginning of Apple, Jobs is presented as the young guy who T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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258 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 started his own computer company out of his parents' garage. This image is related to kids playing with electronics. Later on Jobs focused on animation movies and became the co-founder and chief executive of Pixar Animation Studios, and eventually became a member of the board of directors of the Walt Disney Company in 2006. In these capacities he developed technologies for animation movies for children (e.g., Toy Story, Bugs' Life, Finding Nemo) and is credited in Toy Story (1995) as an executive producer. These roles and the type of movies he produced helped maintain an aura of fun and youth. Even at later stages in his life, after he became ill and looked older, he still highlighted the notion of youth. In his talk in 2011, after months of media absence due to his illness, he said in a formal speech to customers: "Five months ago I had a liver transplant, so I now have the liver of a mid-twenties person, who died in a car crash." Even at this stage he portrayed himself as having an organ of a young person willing to take risks (KLGCooperation, 2011). The perception of Steve Jobs as youthful was further supported by his informal dress style. A reporter described Jobs as follows: "Boyish is probably the word that best describes our first impression. He was wearing jeans and a turtleneck as he bounded up the stairs" (Gendron & Burlingham, 1989). Another means to reinforce Jobs's youthful image and to elicit closeness with his customers, was the use he made of language and slang. Jobs often spoke in a very informal colloquial way, which characterized a youthful attitude to life and business. Jobs received personal emails from customers, and in his responses the language stands out. For example, when asked by a customer named Ricky if it was really him reading his emails, Steve's answer was "Yep. I do" (Milian, 2011, p. 264). As a response to an inter- national customer complaining to Jobs about iPad stock in Europe, Jobs replied, "Are you nuts? We are doing the best we can" (Subramony, 2011). In his famous keynote presentations that were broadcast worldwide, he often used informal language to describe the products. When presenting the first iPad in 2010, Jobs describe it as "An awesome way to enjoy your music collection" (Apple, 2010) and frequently talked about the products as being "cool." Jobs and the firm also applied shorter words, resembling nicknames, to their products (Apps for applications, Mac for Macintosh, etc.). Using formal and polite language is related to greater social distance while informal colloquial language is related to social proximity (Holtgraves & Yang, 1992; Stephan, Liberman, & Trope, 2010). By using an informal lanT&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 259 guage combined with slang, Jobs created a youthful perception of himself and constructed a sense of proximity.
Playing and Having Fun
Jobs also manipulated distance by framing the use of the products, as well as the company and Jobs himself, as 'playful' and 'fun.' To reinforce these concepts Jobs used various playtime metaphors to describe the company's products. For example in one talk he referred to computers by saying that: "computers are like bicycles to our mind" (Michael Lawrence Films, 2006). The scripting and staging of these concepts are evident in Apple commercials. For example, Apple's 2011 iPod commercial starts with an image of someone sending a text message saying: "wanna play?" and then it shows young people playing together on their iPods, smiling and having fun. At the end of the commercial a slide appears which reads "Share the fun" (Apple, 2011c). In one of the "I'm a Mac, I'm a PC" Apple ads, the person representing the Mac says "I am into doing a lot of fun stuff like movies, music, podcasts and stuff like that," while the guy representing the PC responds " I also do fun stuff like time sheets and spreadsheets and pie charts" (iMediaTube, 2008). This ad further emphasized Apple's fun and playfulness as opposed to the PC's serious focus on work. Play is usually attributed to children — "kids play, adults work" (Kark, 2011a). While the work sphere is thought of as a formal environment, where one is expected to strive toward achieving defined goals and ends (Glynn, 1994), framing tasks as play leads to different outcomes, such as enjoyment and the focus on the means rather than goals and efficiency (Kark, 2011a). By promoting a playful image of Apple and its products, Jobs promoted a similar image of himself. He was described as "the ultimate end-user, the guy who is on our side" by writer Dan Lyons (as cited by Nouchi, 2010). Being the ultimate end-user does not only emphasize the similarity between Jobs and his customers but also exemplifies his playful nature as a person who enjoys "playing" with his recent inventions. Jobs's final message at the commencement speech at Stanford University in 2005 was: "stay hungry, stay foolish" (a phrase he took from the "Whole Earth Catalog").6 This message further reinforces the image of 'young' and 'playful.' Thus, using images, metaphors, language and attire, Jobs framed, scripted, staged and enacted the notion of youth. Using this mechanism skillfully, he was able to craft and transform his image from a distant, T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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260 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 leading and senior CEO, to a youthful and playful 'guy' who is perceived by people as psychologically close. Intimacy with the Product and the Leader "I have an iPhone which is the extension of me"—Cindy Gallop, Founder and CEO, IfWeRanTheWorld (Halpin, 2011). This quote reflects the deep connection Apple's customers have with their products. Creating a sense of intimacy with the product and the leader is the third mechanism used by Steve Jobs to decrease his perceived distance. He created products that people felt were a part of their identity and signified who they are as individuals. Through the deep connection people developed with their iMacs, iPhones, iPods and iPads, they experienced a strong bond with Jobs himself, who was perceived as a representation of the computer devices. This strong connection between the technology and Jobs was achieved by the presentation of computers as human, by designing them to have specific characteristics, and by connecting the customers' identities to the products.
Bonding through the Humanization of Technology
Steve Jobs saw technology in a different way than other people; he talked about technology and computers as if they were living things with whom he had an intimate relationship. Intimacy is "a form of close relatedness in which an individual shares his or her innermost emotions, experiences, and thoughts with the other and experiences empathic responsiveness, a depth of understanding and a sense of shared meaning" (Kark, 2011b, p. 424). Although this definition focuses on interactions between human beings, an emotional connection can also develop toward objects. This type of connection is evident in the relationships of Apple users with their computers and other gadgets. Guy Kawasaki (Apple's former chief evangelist) said: "no one has fallen in love with their Taurus (a computer brand)," implying that people can fall in love with their Macs (Shely, 2009).7 This attitude toward Apple products is a result of a scripting process that humanizes and personifies technology. This process involves ascribing a human role, characteristics and even abilities to the computer. In an interview in Inc. magazine, Jobs's tendency to humanize technology is expressed in the way he talks about it, as though he were talking about an T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 261 actual person with an independent will: "Sometimes the technology just doesn't want to show you what it can do" (Gendron & Burlingham, 1989). Another example of this perception of computers as somewhat human can be seen in the presentation of the first Macintosh computer in 1984. Jobs said: "we've done a lot of talking about Macintosh recently. But today, for the first time ever, I'd like to let Macintosh speak for itself." Then the computer presented itself and said: "Hello. I'm Macintosh. It sure is great to get out of that bag . . . obviously I can talk. But right now I'd like to sit back and listen. So it is with considerable pride that I introduce a man who's been like a father to me, Steve Jobs" (Isaacson, 2011a, p. 170). This presents the computer as a human being: it talks, it jokes, it sits back and listens, and it has a father. Apple's strategy of humanizing its technology was developed further in the twenty-first century, when it revealed its new iPhone in October 2011. Its newest feature is called 'Siri,' a personal assistant which will help its owner perform different tasks on their phone. It was described as "this amazing assistant, that listens to you, understands you, can answer your questions, it can even accomplish tasks for you . . . [it has] the ability to understand what you mean, and act on it" (Apple, 2011a). This human relationship is also present in the ads for the new iPhone. In these ads people are presented talking to 'Siri' as they would to a real person. For example, a woman is filmed asking her phone "What's my day look like?" and Siri answers "Not bad . . . only two meetings today" (Apple, 2011b). Talking about technology as human transforms the device from an object made of circuits, metal and plastic to a living creature, one that shares a relationship with you. Thus, Jobs, who is highly identified with the Apple products, reduced distance between his humanized products and his customers. This inevitably leads to a sense of proximity of the customers with Jobs himself.
Connecting through Physical Contact with the Product
Individuals' relationships with their Apple products and with Jobs are further elicited through the design of the products. When designing the first Macintosh, Jobs insisted that it should look 'friendly' and it was designed to look like a human face (Isaacson, 2011a). Apple's products are not only friendly looking, but they also encourage their owners to interact with them in ways that create perceived relationships, for example through T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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262 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 touch. Apple did not invent the touch screen, but its iPod Touch and especially the iPhone have made the touch device very popular. Touch symbolizes closeness; touch is the aspect of relationships that reflects and influences the nature and quality of the relationship. Above all, touch immediately enhances intimacy (Thayer, 1986). This is demonstrated in the movie MacHeads, showing a young woman waiting at a repair shop to get her computer fixed, sitting on a bench, hugging her iMac computer and petting it like an animal (a computer which weighs about 22 pounds). She appears very concerned and upset (Shely, 2009). Another feature of these electronic devices that contributes to creating this bond is their portability. Mobile devices such as iPods, iPhones, and iPads are devices that people carry in their pockets or their hands. They touch their devices, and through this constant contact they develop an intimate relationship with them. This relationship is extended to Jobs himself. People feel that when they carry their iPhone in their pocket, they carry him, as expressed by actress Martha Plimpton: "Rest in Peace, Steve Jobs. Kinda can't believe he's gone. Carrying a little part of him in my pocket every day" (Allen, 2011).
Connecting through Identity
People use objects to communicate who they are to others (Cappetta & Gioia, 2006). According to Guy Kawasaki: "People have to consider a Mac as an extension of themselves, that's just the way it is" (Shely, 2009). Apple's customers see their electronic devices as reflecting who they are:
I mean, Only mac people really put stickers all over their laptops and I think it's indicative that this is kind of something that is close to me, like my clothing and it is an identification and it really shifts the computer from being just a business application to being something personal that is mine. (Deborah Schultz, Digital Media Strategist, cited in Halpin, 2011)
Individuals' self-identity is a multidimensional construct which is dynamic and changing and can therefore be influenced by leaders (Kark &Shamir, 2002; Lord & Brown, 2001, 2004). Jobs's leadership, actions and decisions regarding Apple and its products led customers to see the products as a means to communicate their self-identity. Steve Jobs constructed Apple's products as representative of who he and his customers are. Most T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 263 of Apple's products names start with i— iMac, iPod, iPhone, as does some of its software— iTunes, iLife, iWork. The 'i' originates from the first computer Apple made after Jobs's return to the company in the 1990s, the iMac. The 'i' stands for internet, individual, instruct, inform, inspire (Zeusprp, 2011). But it is first of all 'I'—the first person singular pronoun, the word people use when referring to themselves. This choice of the letter conveys a message to customers that individuals can express and represent themselves through their devices. As can be seen in this quote from an Apple fan in the movie MacHeads: "The great thing about the mac is that you can completely customize it . . . I can self-individuate my computer in a way that has meaning to me" (Shely, 2009). Effective leadership tends to elicit personal identification with the leader. This identification is expressed when an individual's belief about a leader becomes self-defining (Kark & Shamir, 2002; Kark, Shamir, & Chen, 2003). When followers feel that their devices represent them, they feel that they share similar values with the leader, and they identify with him or her, thus creating personal identification. By eliciting customers' self-identity and presenting certain themes and values that they hold (individuality), Jobs prompted his customers to identify with Apple as a company and with him personally as a leader. This created a sense of oneness and proxi- mity between the image of Jobs and the customers. Thus, through the personalization of computers, which are brought to life as 'talking' and 'listening' individuals that people can touch, carry close to the body (e.g. the pocket) and feel are part of their innermost identity, owners can form a sense of strong bond and personal relatedness to Steve Jobs, who is perceived as the 'man behind' the devices. Visibility and Close Interaction with Customers Perhaps the most extraordinary and powerful mechanism used by Steve Jobs to reduce his distance from his customers was the way he skillfully constructed his visibility to the Apple customers and the way he structured direct interaction with them. First, as a CEO Jobs was very visible: he presented all of Apple's new products. Even when he was on medical leave in 2011, he took to the stage to present the iPad2, saying "we've been working on this product for a while and I did not want to miss today" (Apple, 2011d). His visibility was not only apparent in announcements and special events, but also when controversies and problems were encountered. T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
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264 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 In April 2011, an issue regarding customer privacy with the iPhone 4 caught the public attention. People were worried and upset when they discovered that their iPhone was delivering location-based information to Apple. Although on a medical leave, Jobs came in person to participate in a rare television interview and addressed customers' complaints (Fried, 2011). This action demonstrates that although he was a distant indirect leader, he handled short-term, momentary events by being present and in view (Yammarino, 1994). This event was not rare, since Jobs was known to have dealt many times with customer service issues personally, while interacting directly with customers. Similarly, when a customer emailed about a long wait to get his computer fixed, the Apple CEO called him personally on the phone to apologize for the wait, updated him that he had expedited the repair and thanked him for his support of Apple (Milian, 2011). This is quite an unusual act for a CEO of a company that has as many customers as Apple. This example does not only exemplify Jobs's tendency to get involved in such matters as customer service, but also demonstrates an important aspect of leader-follower relationships; namely, direct interaction between Jobs and the customers. Another way in which Jobs interacted directly with his customers was through email. His Apple email address was publicly known and he received many emails from customers; some of them elicited a response from him and were documented by his enthusiastic fans in different blogs and websites. Some of his responses were short 'yep' or 'coming,' but sometimes he engaged in longer email exchanges with customers, resembling actual conversations (Milian, 2011). These emails reflect the closeness Apple's customers felt toward him in another way. Most of these emails start with the familiar form of "Dear Steve" and not with the words 'Dear Mr. Jobs.' (Milian, 2011). Jobs's written interactions with customers encouraged them to feel they had an actual genuine close relationship with him. Jobs's interactions with Apple customers were not only email-based. In 2007, shortly after the release of the iPhone, Jobs was invited by his friend Andy Grove (the co-founder of Intel), who was teaching a business class, to a student's presentation on the iPhone. He came and posed a challenge to the student by asking difficult questions and eventually taking the stage himself (Milian, 2011). Such interactions decreased the perceived distance between Jobs and his customers. By engaging in occasional dialog with his public, Jobs managed to influence their perceptions of him and position himself as much closer than he was. T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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DISCUSSION The conceptualization of leadership distance presented here portrays leader distance as a malleable active process in which leaders can shape, re-shape, structure and transform their distance and proximity from their followers. We propose that one way in which leaders influence the processes of sense giving and meaning making is by the manipulation of distance between their figures and their followers and between the organization and its products and the followers (employees, customers, etc.). We present different ways in which leaders can actively 'do distance,' through their use of artifacts (e.g., attire and logos), the images they present of themselves and of the company (e.g., young and playful versus senior and settled), the design of their products, the type of interactions they have with their followers (e.g., intimate versus formal) and their level and type of visibility to their followers. We used the case study of Steve Jobs to explore the different ways in which leaders enact distance, suggesting that he had a unique strategy of enacting distance by eliciting a perspective of himself as a leader who was simultaneously close and distant, near and far. In his role as CEO of Apple he was distant from his customers on many dimensions: geographically, physically, in terms of power distance, and other parameters. However, he was able to decrease the sense of distance and form a sense of closeness with many of his customers, as exemplified in the analyses above. The ability of leaders to transform and affect followers' perception of their distance from them is of importance, since leader-follower distance and proximity have been suggested in the literature to result in different types of outcomes in terms of the ways the leader is perceived by the followers and in terms of their behavior. For example, distant charismatic leadership leads to an idealized image of the leader and followers' trust and confidence in him or her. It also better enables leaders to influence followers' political attitudes and behaviors (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Shamir, 1995; Waldman & Yammarino, 1999; Yagil, 1998). Close charismatic leadership, and close leadership in general, was found to create more positive affect toward the leader, and leads to identification with the leader and emulation of the leader's behavior. It was also conceptualized as leading to several follower-level outcomes, such as higher self-efficacy perceptions, greater motivation, higher performance evaluation, higher job satisfaction T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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266 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 and lower employee turnover (Napier & Ferris, 1993; Shamir, 1995; Yagil, 1998). In the case study we explored how Jobs's ability to juggle the duality of distance and proximity enabled him to benefit from both the effect of a distant leader (followers' admiration, confidence, trust and a sense of heroism and extraordinary personality) as well as from the effects of closeness (followers' positive affect, identification with the leader, and emulation of his behaviors). Thus, 'doing distance' can contribute to leaders' ability to influence and affect different forms of followers' perceptions, beliefs, affect and behaviors. We presented a framework of leadership distance that may contribute to further research on leadership processes. In addition, we have raised some issues that merit attention in future studies. Four qualifications should be added at this point. First, while we maintain that leaders can affect the sense of distance and proximity of their followers, we do not imply that leaders can always control this influence. Various contextual characteristics, such as objective distance, the organizational structure and norms, the seniority of the leader and the size of the organization, may limit leaders' ability to enact different forms of distance and proximity. Second, although we contend that leaders are able to consciously manipulate their distance from followers, it is possible that often this process may be difficult to manage consciously and may occur without the leader's awareness. Third, it is possible that the same leader may enact closeness toward one group of his or her followers and distance toward another group of followers. According to leader-member exchange theory (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; Uhl-Bien &Arnaud, 2001) and notions put forward by Klein and House (1995) on heterogeneous charismatic effects, it is possible that the same leader may behave differently toward different followers who have different motivational needs. Thus, the leader can improve his or her influence and effectiveness by enhancing closeness with one group and enforcing distance with another. For example, in the case study of Steve Jobs we focused on his relationship with his customers. However it is more than likely that had we focused on his relationship with Apple employees we may have found a different form of enacting distance and proximity. It is also possible that the same leader will enhance distance in one channel and reduce distance in another channel of communication. For example, a leader may convey a message of distance in terms of the images he uses, but have very close daily interactions with his followers. T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 267 Fourth, we do not contend that one type of distance with its related outcomes is superior or more effective than another. Rather, we believe that the relative effectiveness of different distance strategies is contingent on the circumstances and the various attributes of the context (e.g., follower group composition, task characteristics, situation of the economic markets). Furthermore, culture may be an external factor influencing leaders' ability to enact distance and closeness. While Western cultures are in general lower on power distance, Eastern cultures are higher on that dimension and perceive leaders and authority figures as inherently more distant from their followers, and accept this as the desired situation (Hofstede, 1994). Some cultures are more democratic and open to different styles of leadership; however others may not be so open to nontraditional forms of leadership. In some cultures seniority in the organization is important, and behaviors such as casual attire, using informal language and being playful may be considered childish and inappropriate. Such cultural differences may be relevant not only to different countries, but also to different industries within a country. Technology companies like Apple have a more open and informal organizational culture which allows managers and employees to be less formal in their attire and conduct. However other industries, such as manufacturing or more traditional workplaces such as banks, may wish to create a different perception of the organization and its leadership. Finally, although the framework we offer explores the leader's role as the individual who enacts distance, it is more than likely that followers may play an important role in this process (Dvir & Shamir, 2003; Ehrhart & Klein, 2001; Howell & Shamir, 2005). A leader may wish to influence his perceived distance; however followers may not be willing to accept the image he or she promotes, possibly rejecting the leader's attempts to become closer or more distant. Although 'doing distance' may be an important managerial instrument by assisting leaders in their daily work with employees, it may have a 'dark side' which is important to address. 'Doing distance' is a form of mani- pulating individuals' perceptions in order to accomplish goals of a different nature. In Apple's case, Steve Jobs's perceived proximity is possibly one of the things that made Apple more popular among customers, essentially resulting in larger revenues for the company. The use of closeness within the domain of work and business needs to also be viewed with some caution, since organizations may take advantage of followers' feelings of closeness as a means for achieving organizational goals. Thus, companies T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
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268 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 and leaders can set up proxy closeness relationships as a subtle form of attaining normative control over their employees and customers. In conclusion, we do not know the extent to which leaders' enactment of distance affects the process of meaning making and followers' perceptions and behaviors. However, the case study of Steve Jobs gives us a strong basis to argue that leaders' distance and proximity can play an important role in their attempt to influence others. The lack of a sufficient understanding of the mechanisms by which these leadership strategies are used and the way they further affect leader-follower relationships and follower outcomes suggests that further theoretical development as well as empirical testing of the phenomenon of 'doing distance' are crucial.
NOTES
1 In this paper we are interested in focusing on the theoretical concept of leadership and followership. Since our case study is focused on Apple and the leadership of Steve Jobs in the business and organizational arena, we refer to managers (CEOs) and employees, but mostly customers, when examining the leader-follower relationship. Although this may not represent all types of leader-follower relationships, it does portray various aspects of this relationship. In July 2011, Apple reported a record quarterly revenue of $28.57 billion and a record quarterly net profit of $7.31 billion, or $7.79 per diluted share, for the fiscal 2011 third quarter. The gross margin was 41.7% compared to 39.1% in the previous year's quarter. The company sold 20.34 million iPhones, 9.25 million iPads and 3.95 million Macs. Taken from: http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/07/19Apple-Reports-Third-QuarterResults.html. Geek—The word geek is a slang term, with different meanings ranging from "a computer expert or enthusiast" to "A derogatory reference to a person obsessed with intellectual pursuits for their own sake, who is also deficient in most other human attributes so as to impair the person's smooth operation within society" (Geek, n.d.). The apple with the bite also reminds people of the story of Adam and Eve, which exemplifies the commonalties and familiarity between all people. This can also be seen in a caricature from USA Today, depicting an angel welcoming Steve Jobs to heaven saying "To be honest, Mr. Jobs, the last time an apple caused so much excitement around here involved Adam, Eve and a snake." An example of the impact of Apple's logo can be seen after Jobs's death. People brought actual apples to the memorial sites created by the public at Apple stores. This reflects the deep connection made between Jobs and Apple. The Whole Earth Catalog was a counter-culture catalog, published in the 1960s and 1970s, that presented different products. It promoted an individualistic worldview, science, intellectual endeavor, blending new and old technologies (taken from: http:// www.wholeearth.com/history-whole-earth-catalog.php).
2
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6
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7 We experienced such a feeling ourselves; as one of the authors of this paper described how she bought her laptop: "I went into the shop and fell in love with it [the computer] . . . I could not resist its charm. So I bought the MacbookAir."
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doc_182526824.docx
simultaneously means that two or more actions happen at the same time. For example: The two car crashes happened simultaneously.The events do not have to occur in the same place, and do not have to be connected except by when they happen.
Jobs's Leadership: Simultaneously Distant and Close
I think it's [technology] brought the world a lot closer together, and will continue to do that. Steve Jobs, Rolling Stone (Goodwell, 2003)
This quote, taken from Jobs's interview with Rolling Stone magazine in 2003, describes Jobs's view of technology. In his mind, technology was about bringing people closer. This was his purpose and his guide for creating new technologies, both inside and outside Apple. His leadership style also reflected the issue of distance and closeness from his customers (followers).1 Steve Jobs was the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Apple for 14 years, and was described as a genius. He was an extraordinary person and was greatly admired by Apple fans and many others, not only those in the field of technology but by millions of people whose lives were influenced by his products. Typically, large company CEOs are thought to be distant from their employees and even more so from their customers. However, we argue that Steve Jobs managed to shape people's perceptions of him as a charismatic leader who was simultaneously close and distant. According to leadership theory, close charismatic leaders and distant charismatic leaders are perceived differently by followers. This has been suggested to result in different types of effects and outcomes. Close leaders usually influence their followers through their observable behaviors and their personal relationships with them, whereas distant leaders influence followers through image-building techniques. Leaders who can capitalize on a dual perception of both closeness and distance may benefit from being able to influence followers from both near and afar. T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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242 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 Our goal here is to draw from theories of leadership and distance (e.g., Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Napier & Ferris, 1993; Shamir, 1995; Waldman & Yammarino, 1999; Yagil, 1998) and use the case study of Steve Jobs to develop a conceptual framework to advance further theoretical thinking and empirical studies on the underlying mechanisms that enable leaders to influence their followers' perceptions of their distance from the leader and, ultimately, affect their behaviors and organizational-related outcomes. Thus, our aim here is threefold. First, we aim to present the idea that leaders can enact distance and create perceptions of distance and proximity, which are independent, to some extent, of their predetermined formal organizational distance (such as hierarchy, social distance and physical distance). Second, we aim to understand different mechanisms used by leaders to shape followers' perception of distance and proximity from them. Last, we aim to explore possible outcomes of leaders' distance and proximity. We use the case study of Steve Jobs to uncover the ways in which leaders are able to actively increase and decrease distance from their followers. By focusing on the case study of Steve Jobs, we will present the notion of leaders 'doing distance and proximity', by exploring different ways in which leaders actively shape the way they are perceived by followers as near or far from them. We suggest that Steve Jobs's dual-distance strategy (of eliciting both a sense of distance and a sense of proximity among followers) was a leadership strategy which distinguished Jobs from other business leaders (CEOs) and helped to create the myth of Jobs as an extraordinary and legendary leader. By being both close and distant, he stood out as a charismatic and unique leader, eliciting strong emotions and attachment between the customers and his products, as well as between the customers and himself as a leader. In the following, we start by presenting a short biography of the life of Steve Jobs. Then, drawing on behaviors and effects of close and distant leaders we demonstrate how he made use of both distant charisma and close charisma. We then focus on the notion of 'doing distance' and attempt to reveal and understand the enactment of leadership distance. Finally, we investigate four different mechanisms used by Steve Jobs to shape distance. We conclude with the implications of doing distance and consider future directions for research.
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THE LIFE OF STEVE JOBS Steven Paul Jobs was born on February 24th, 1955, to two unmarried graduate students who decided to give him up for adoption. During his high school years, he spent his free time at Hewlett-Packard in Silicon Valley California, where he met a fellow computer fan—Steve Wozniak (known as Woz). After graduating from high school, Jobs enrolled at Reed College in Portland, Oregon. However, soon after, he stopped going to the classes he was enrolled in and started attending the classes he found interesting and he officially dropped out after one semester. He spent the next 18 months attending classes he found interesting, such as calligraphy, which influenced the way he later designed typefaces and space between fonts for the Mac. After dropping out he worked for Atari, Inc. for some time. In 1976, at the age of 21, together with Wozniak he founded Apple Computers in his parents' garage in Los Altos, California. For the next nine years, Apple grew and Jobs and Wozniak invented different computers that changed the face of the computer industry—Apple I, Apple II (known as one of the first personal computers—PC—in the world) and the Macintosh (named after the McIntosh apple and intentionally misspelled). In 1985 Jobs was forced out of the company, after a power struggle with Apple's CEO at the time— John Sculley. He then founded another computer company called NeXT, bought the then failing Pixar Studios (named The Graphics Group at the time), which under his management became one of the leading animation studios in the world. The next chapter in Jobs's life started in 1996, when Apple was unprofitable and was facing possible bankruptcy. Apple decided to buy Jobs's company NeXT, and brought him back as interim chief executive (iCEO). In 2000 Jobs became the company's permanent CEO. In the years that followed Apple not only got back on track, but also became one of the most profitable companies in the world.2 Jobs led Apple to success by focusing the company on a few core products (desktop computers and laptops) as opposed to many different ones and by creating groundbreaking products like the MacBook Air. Apple prided itself in its sleek, elegant and easy to use computers like the iMac, MacBook and MacBook Air. The creation of new digital devices such as the iPod, iPhone and iPad, made Apple a household name around the world.
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244 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 In 2003 Jobs discovered he had pancreatic cancer. After a struggle of eight years, he passed away on October 5, 2011. His death was mourned by many around the world, and major TV networks in the United States and across the world interrupted scheduled programming to broadcast the news. Several key figures, including the President of the United States Barack Obama, British Prime Minister David Cameron and Microsoft founder Bill Gates commented on his death. Many Apple enthusiasts and Jobs's fans gathered in Apple stores around the world to pay their respects to Jobs. Below we explore the complex dynamic in which Steve Jobs enacted distance and proximity from Apple customers and wider audiences, in an attempt to uncover one of the processes that contributed to the strong bond that developed between Steve Jobs and Apple clients/fans.
LEADERSHIP AND CEO DISTANCE Leadership distance can be defined as an aspect of the organizational context (Cole, Bruch, & Shamir, 2009; Porter & McLaughlin, 2006) which influences leadership processes in organizations. Leadership distance has been described as resulting from leaders' hierarchical level, their physical location with regard to followers, psychological distance (perceived and actual similarity), the frequency of interactions with followers, and the quality of their relationship in general (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Napier & Ferris, 1993; Shamir, 1995; Yagil, 1998). The majority of previous theories and typologies presented distance as a stable facet of leadership context, which is an integral part of the position and role of the leader and is therefore under minimal control by the leader. We approach leadership distance in a somewhat different manner by conceptualizing leadership distance as a characteristic that can to some extent be defined, constructed, molded and influenced by leaders themselves. We draw on earlier work on 'sense-making' and 'sense-giving,' arguing that leaders are able to influence aspects of their distance and the ways followers interpret it, by creating a perception of distance or proximity through manipulation of their messages and personal image. Through the transcendence of inherent dimensions of distance, leaders can influence and shape followers' perceptions of their distance. In this chapter we explore the ways in which Steve Jobs T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 245 attempted to influence his followers' perception of him as a leader and their behavior toward Apple as a company, through his manipulation of leader distance. In our analyses of the followers we focus only on Apple customers, and do not refer to Apple employees. As Apple's CEO, Jobs was at the top of the hierarchy and was likely to be perceived as distant by followers. Companies' CEOs are distant from their followers on different dimensions. They are physically distant, as their employees and customers are usually scattered across the country or are located in other countries, and their offices are usually some distance from their employees. CEOs are also socially and psychologically distant. Theydiffer from their followers in many ways including their job profiles, status, power, and demographic characteristics. They might also be perceived as dissimilar to followers on other characteristics such as values and general personality (e.g., being achievement-oriented, very successful, and rich). Since CEOs lead a large number of followers, they rarely interact directly with their followers, and when they do, it is at best a unilateral interaction, in which the leader presents his or her strategy or vision. This is rarely a reciprocal conversation between two equals. According to Waldman and Yammarino (1999), CEOs can be close to their followers; however, these followers are those with whom they have direct working relationships; namely the top management team. With the majority of their followers they have a 'distant relationship' that includes symbolic behaviors and a pre- sentation of their vision (Waldman & Yammarino, 1999). Therefore, CEO leadership is seen as a distant form of leadership, one that is not a part of the followers' everyday life and one that is characterized by leaders' use of impression-management strategies and followers' attributions processes toward the leader. In this chapter we explore a different case, a CEO whose unusual and unique behavior created a different type of leadership and perception of distance that is simultaneously distant and close. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
DUAL-DISTANCE STRATEGIES: THE PERCEPTION OF STEVE JOBS AS A CLOSE AND DISTANT LEADER Close and distant leaders have been conceptualized as possessing and demonstrating different characteristics and behaviors and as having T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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246 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 different influences on their subordinates (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Cole et al., 2009; Shamir, 1995; Yagil, 1998). Distant charismatic leaders are perceived as having extraordinary qualities and are perceived in general as more heroic figures (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Shamir, 1995; Yagil, 1998), as having more courage and as being more persistent (Shamir, 1995). Attributions they elicit are based upon their presentation of their ideas (Yagil, 1998), their articulation of a vision and their rhetorical skills (Shamir, 1995), as well as on organizational performance cues and imagebuilding techniques, which create an ideal image of the leader (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002). On the other hand, close charismatic leaders are often described in a more realistic and less ideal manner than distant leaders. Close charismatic leaders are usually described in terms of their personal qualities and behaviors (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Shamir, 1995) and serve as behavioral role model for their followers (Yagil, 1998; Shamir, 1995). Thus, the literature suggests that close and distant charismatic leaders are portrayed and perceived as two different prototypes of leadership who demonstrate different traits, behaviors and characteristics. Distant charismatic leaders are perceived as more heroic figures, whereas close charismatic leaders are perceived as more humane. We contend that Steve Jobs represented a unique leader in that he was able to incorporate both aspects as a leader. He actively shaped a sense of distance, in that he was perceived as 'larger than life' and a sense of proximity, in that he could also be perceived as a 'close friend.' Jobs as a leader clearly enacted both closeness and distance. Below we analyze and illustrate this effect. We first discuss Steve Jobs as a distant charismatic leader and then show how he was perceived as a close leader. To do so we make use of a variety of supplementary material including daily newspapers and magazine articles, popular press articles, online 'blog' posting, YouTube videos, Apple advertisements, books on the life of Steve Jobs and documentary movies about Jobs's life and Apple 'fans.' Jobs as Characterized by Distant Charisma One of the key characteristics of distant charismatic leaders is their presentation of a vision (Shamir, 1995; Waldman & Yammarino, 1999; Yagil, 1998), which is an idealized image of the future (Conger & Kanungo, 1998; Shamir, 1995). Among Jobs's most renowned characteristics was his vision for the technology industry. Fortune's technology reporter Miguel Helft T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 247 wrote in Jobs's obituary that "On Wednesday, America lost its most successful chief executive, the technology industry lost its greatest visionary, and Silicon Valley lost a giant whose influence will be felt for years to come" (2011). In a movie by the Discovery Channel broadcast after his death, Michio Kaku, a physicist from the City College of New York, said "Steve Jobs had a great vision" (Halpin, 2011). He is also described in the movie as "the guy who envisioned a computer in every desk, an ear-bud in every ear and a device that will take multitasking to a whole new level. He didn't just envision. He made it happen" (Halpin, 2011). In the press, Jobs was presented as " a man who changed the way we live. The word used most often is 'visionary'" (Claburn, 2011). Also metaphorically he was portrayed as a person who "reached for the stars and pulled a few down to earth for the rest of us to enjoy" (Lappin, 2011). Almost every description of Jobs in the media included presenting him as a visionary. By presenting a vision and pursuing it throughout his life, Jobs exemplified a major characteristic of distant leaders. However, his vision presentations would not have been complete without his famed rhetoric skill, which has been described as an ability to mold reality and make others perceive it as he wished—his "reality distortion field" (Isaacson, 2011a). Rhetorical skills have also been defined as a key characteristic of distant charismatic leaders (Shamir, 1995; Waldman & Yammarino, 1999; Yagil, 1998). As the front man of Apple, Steve Jobs was in charge of the company's unveiling of new products and services in the form of the Apple keynote speeches at major Apple events. The keynote speeches were very popular and well known all around the world: people would arrive a day early to the Macworld and Apple Expo conferences and camp out near the entrance to get a good seat for the keynote speech (Shely, 2009). In these keynotes Jobs demonstrated his unique rhetoric skill, often eliciting great applause from the excited audience. Internet bloggers and Apple fans dubbed these speeches 'Stevenote' (Cult of Mac, 2011; 'Stevenote', n.d.), to reflect their special nature and appeal. Whenever he was presenting to the crowds, Jobs was welcomed with great applause by the audience and managed to elicit enthusiasm and acceptance from them. One example is the audience's reaction to Jobs's announcement at the 1997 Macworld Expo, that Microsoft was investing $150 million in Apple in order to help the company during its financial crisis. The audience was not happy with the news and expressed it, as they booed at Jobs's announcement. As a reaction, Jobs delivered an unexpected sermon emphasizing the importance of the T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
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248 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 relationship with Microsoft, resulting in the audience's approval of the step. This event demonstrates Jobs's ability to shape and influence public opinion through his well-calculated and elaborate rhetorical skill. Many times Jobs's exceptional rhetorical skill was compared to that of other CEOs as can be seen in articles that appeared in the Guardian:
If the chief executive of Cadbury-Schweppes speaks at a conference, or Nike's boss introduces a new kind of trainer, you might expect to see it covered in specialist magazines, then quickly forgotten. But on Tuesday a chief executive will stand up and announce something, and within minutes it will be scrutinized across the web and on stockbrokers' computers. It will be in newspapers. They'll talk about it for months. That chief executive is Steve Jobs, and I know why that speech makes an impact. To a casual observer it is just a guy in a black shirt and jeans talking about some new technology products. But it is in fact an incredibly complex and sophisticated blend of sales pitch, product demonstration and corporate cheerleading, with a dash of religious revival thrown in for good measure. It represents weeks of work, precise orchestration and intense pressure for the scores of people who collectively make up the "man behind the curtain" . . . When Apple announces something new, people pay attention. This is due, in large measure, to Steve and the way he delivers Apple's messages. (Evangelist, 2006)
These examples demonstrate Jobs's rhetorical skill, one of his unique characteristics that differentiated him from other executives in the business world, which reinforced his image as a distant charismatic leader. Perceptions of distant leaders are also influenced by organizational performance cues. Starting in 1996, when Jobs returned to Apple, and especially during the 2000s, Apple garnered vast success and popularity among customers all around the world. This success and customer loyalty was mainly attributed to Jobs. For example, Forbes contributor Scott Goodson was asked why Apple's customers are forgiving and loyal to the company, even when there are issues and problems with the product. His answer was "Well, it's mainly because of the late, great Steve Jobs. Apple is Steve Jobs. Steve Jobs is Apple. People feel like they have a personal relationship with Apple because they're essentially thinking of Steve" (Goodson, 2011). Apple's success thus served as a basis for the evaluation of Jobs as a leader. Apple is Steve Jobs, and hence its success is his. This T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 249 quote demonstrates another aspect of Jobs's distant leadership style—the heroic perception of the leader. Distant leaders are usually perceived as heroic and extraordinary individuals, who have special characteristics that make them the successful leaders they are (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Shamir, 1995). Jobs was presented many times as the 'hero that saved Apple' when he returned to the company in 1997 (Macworld, 2011; Shinal, 2011). The extraordinary attributions, were also reflected in the financial markets' response to his medical leaves throughout his illness. Every one of his medical leaves or news about his health influenced Apple's stock, with the deterioration in Jobs's health leading to a decline in Apple stock. All the above demonstrate the perceptions of Jobs as a distant charismatic leader. He was seen as extraordinary and heroic, able to articulate a vision and highly capable of presenting it in a manner that excited followers. However, as shown in Goodson's comment (2011), Steve Jobs was not the usual CEO or distant leader. In Jobs's case people felt that they had a personal relationship with Apple, because they felt as though they had a personal relationship with Jobs himself. Thus, Jobs's image as a leader also encompassed characteristics, personality traits, behaviors and relationships with followers that have been found in previous research to be attributed to close charismatic leaders (Shamir, 1995; Waldman & Yammarino, 1999; Yagil, 1998). Jobs as Characterized by Close Charisma Close charismatic leaders tend to be described in terms of their expertise, competence and intelligence (Shamir, 1995). These traits were frequently used to describe Jobs (Isaacson, 2011b; The Economist, 2011). Jobs was also known for setting very high standards, another trait ascribed to close charismatic leaders (Shamir, 1995). Google's engineer, Vic Gundotra worked with Jobs for a while. One Sunday he received a phone call from Jobs, who had "something urgent to discuss" with him (Gundotra, 2011). The urgent matter was the yellow gradient of the letter O in the Google logo when browsing on the iPhone. This is one of many examples demonstrating Jobs's concern that even the smallest details had to be perfect in his products, thus setting high standards for those with whom he worked. Close charismatic leaders are also defined in terms of their effects on followers, which also characterized Jobs. Role modeling was suggested as one of the effects attributed to close charismatic leaders. Steve Jobs was referred to as a role model for hard work and success: T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
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Jobs may be a multibillionaire, but that hasn't cut into his work ethic. He brings an entrepreneur's energy to tasks many CEOs would see as beneath them, whether it's personally checking the fine print on partnership agreements or calling reporters late in the evening to talk over a story he thinks is important. (Burrows, Grover, & Green, 2006)
During his life and after his death there was much debate about whether Jobs was a good or a bad role model, but many times he was referred to as role model (e.g. Hepp, 2011; Subramaniya, 2009). In his commencement speech at Stanford University in 2005 Jobs advised the graduates that "your time is limited so don't waste it living someone else's life," advice which resonated with Kamael Ann Sugrim, a graduate of the class. She says she was inspired by Jobs to carve her own path, just as he did for himself (Halpin, 2011). On the memorial webpage to Jobs, an Apple customer wrote "I just wanted to say Steve jobs was and still is my idol. He made me want to chase MY dreams and not the world's" (Amanda; http://www.apple.com/stevejobs/). Role modeling was also found to be related to general attribution of charisma to close leaders, but not to distant leaders (Yagil, 1998). As Steve Jobs was frequently referred to as a role model, this characteristic is a good indication of a leadership style that increased proximity. Identification with the leader is described as a fundamental characteristic of charismatic leadership (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Shamir, 1995), which also serves as a power source for the leader. In writings on Steve Jobs, the sense of identification from a stance of closeness is evident. When describing Jobs one interviewee said "If you ask me what my three major influences were, they've got to be, you know—my dad, John Lennon and Steve Jobs" (Shely, 2009). Many messages on Steve Jobs's memorial webpage reflected a similar sense of personal identification and close attachment (http://www.apple. com/stevejobs/). Nevertheless, the most interesting thing about Jobs's leadership was the way people all over the world felt close to him and felt they had a personal relationship with him. Individuals did not know Steve Jobs personally but felt a connection to him, were inspired by him and were emotionally attached to him, something that became very noticeable after his death. One of the interviewees in the movie MacHeads (Shely, 2009) said "I'm willing to follow him; I think that whatever he says is fine with me. You're T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 251 great Steve I will always love you." After his death, the Apple headquarters and Apple stores around the world became pilgrimage sites where people left flowers, notes, greeting cards and apples. Apple created a webpage called "Remembering Steve," where people could write messages to and about Jobs (http://www.apple.com/stevejobs/). Over a million people wrote messages on the webpage, expressing their sadness and thoughts. While admiration is related to both close and distant charismatic leadership, positive affect has mainly been ascribed to close charismatic leaders (Napier & Ferris, 1993; Shamir, 1995). Individuals felt very strong emotions toward Jobs as can be seen from their messages at the memorial page. For example, Zach wrote "I can't believe the person I have looked up for many years is now gone . . . I am deeply saddened by it"; Amanda wrote "You will truly be missed and we'll never forget! . . . steve UR [you are] always in our heart no matter what"; Chuck wrote "you'll never know how you changed my life. you've touched every person on this earth with a smile. thank you"; and John wrote "I feel as if I've lost a close friend. One that I've never met, but was part of my life every day." Many of these messages are phrased as personal letters to Jobs himself, reflecting the deep personal connection his customers/admirers felt for him. Thus, Steve Jobs was perceived and experienced by his customers simultaneously as a distant heroic charismatic leader, as well as a close and humane charismatic leader. These perceptions were partially shaped and molded by Jobs himself through his intentional and unintentional actions, which we define as actions of "doing distance." 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
DOING DISTANCE: THE ENACTMENT OF LEADERSHIP DISTANCE As human beings we shape and construct our physical and social environment, and to some extent the environment can be seen as a product of our creation. Through this process individuals also influence others' perceptions of themselves and various aspects of reality (Reicher, Haslam, &Hopkins, 2005). Thus leadership distance can be conceptualized not only as a predetermined characteristic of leadership or the context, but also as an attribute that can be crafted and controlled to some extent by the
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252 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 individual (i.e., the leader). Hence individuals can actively influence their perceived distance from others by enacting distance or 'doing distance.' The notion of 'doing distance' encompasses a perception of leadership distance as a flexible and dynamic construct that can be influenced, shaped, re- shaped and transformed in the process of leaders' interactions with their followers. The enactment of 'doing distance' is one way in which leaders take part in the process of 'meaning making' and 'sense making' (for meaning making see: Ashforth, Harrison, & Corley, 2008; Bartunek, Krim, Necochea, & Humphries, 1999; Sharma & Grant, 2011). While being novel to the field of leadership and distance, various streams of the leadership literature have presented leaders as creators of meaning (Ashforth et al., 2008; Bartunek et al., 1999; Conger, 1989). One such theoretical direction can be found in the work of Gardner and Avolio (1998), who make use of the dramaturgical perspective to understand charismatic leaders as carriers and constructors of meanings. According to their approach, charismatic leaders create meanings in social situations by engaging in "performances" of impression management and expressing themselves in different ways that are designed to shape the situation, events and the leaders' image according to their perceptions (Gardner & Avolio, 1998). The impression management process includes four behaviors derived from the dramaturgical perspective: framing, scripting, staging and performing (Gardner & Avolio, 1998). Framing is defined as "a quality of communication that causes others to accept one meaning over another" (Fairhurst & Sarr, 1996, p. xi). Fairhurst and Sarr's (1996) definition of framing defines leaders as construing social reality for themselves and their followers. It is about explaining and presenting people and the world as the leader sees it. The second is scripting, which is defined as "the development of a set of directions that define the scene, identify actors and outline expected behavior" (Benford & Hunt, 1992, p. 38). The third element is staging, which refers to the development and manipulation of symbols such as physical appearance, settings props and other artifacts (Gardner & Avolio, 1998). Goffman (1959) includes wardrobe and grooming as an extension of one's personality, and such elements of appearance are often used by leaders, for example when a commander wears medals on his uniform as symbols of his esteem and power (Gardner & Avolio, 1998). Staging also includes manipulating the mass media, for example when business leaders appear in the company's commercials (Bryman, 1992; Conger, 1989; Gardner & Avolio, 1998). Finally, performing is defined by T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 253 Gardner and Avolio (1998) as exemplification and self-promotion. This process is used by charismatic leaders. We draw on the work of Gardner and Avolio (1998) and contend that one of the major ways in which leaders construct meanings and make use of framing, scripting, staging, and performing strategies is that of 'doing distance.' We suggest that the manipulation of distance and proximity by leaders is an active means that enables leaders to build their image, influence the relationship between the leader and his or her followers, and influence followers' performance in different work and organizational tasks. Thus 'doing distance,' by shaping followers' perspectives of the leader as near and far, both physically and psychologically, includes the use of different mechanisms such as different leader behaviors, use of language, construction of artifacts and symbols, and different forms of relating to followers. Below we explore several such mechanisms of 'doing distance' used by Steve Jobs. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
MECHANISMS FOR CREATING DISTANCE AND PROXIMITY As the CEO of a large company, Steve Jobs was first and foremost a distant leader. He ran a multibillion dollar company and was in charge of tens of thousands of employees. The company interacted with millions of customers around the globe. Thus, 'objectively' he was physically and socially distant from his customers and did not interact directly with most of them. However, he managed to transcend the inherent distance of his position from Apple's customers by acting in different ways that made his customers feel close to him. We identified four mechanisms that were used by Steve Jobs to construct and transform his followers' sense of distance into a sense of proximity. These are the use of artifacts, youth and playfulness, intimacy with the product and the leader, and visibility and close interaction with customers. These different forms of 'doing distance' are discussed below. Artifacts Artifacts are defined as "artificial products, something made by human beings and thus any element of a working environment" (Hornby, 1974, p. 43). In the literature, artifacts are defined as "the phenomena that you T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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254 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 would see, hear and feel" (Schein, 2004, p. 23), they are intentionally made products perceived by individuals (Gagliardi, 1992). These definitions include not only physical objects, but also social constructs such as language, logos and symbols (Baruch, 2006; Cappetta & Gioia, 2006). It was argued that artifacts are the most superficial aspect of culture (Schein, 1990); however, more recent work considers them as influential factors that have a vast significance for individuals and organizations (Cappetta &Gioia, 2006; Rafaeli & Pratt, 2006). Through the use of artifacts, individuals communicate to others who they are (Pratt & Rafaeli, 2001). This suggests that artifacts are powerful symbols used by individuals and organiza- tions to convey deep meanings about themselves and their desired image (Cappetta & Gioia, 2006). Two important types of artifacts were used by Steve Jobs to construct his figure as that of a close leader—his attire, and the Apple logo and name.
Jobs's Attire
Clothing is an artifact which communicates powerful messages about the person (Rafaeli & Pratt, 1993) and serves as 'sensegivers' to influence others' perceptions and understanding of reality (Cappetta & Gioia, 2006). Different aspects of attire that were discussed as relevant to this symbolic process are colors of dress, dress style and the material of the items (Rafaeli & Pratt, 1993). Clothing, as symbols, can reflect relationships, since it reveals the nature of the connection between two individuals by communicating the difference and similarities between the individuals involved (Pratt & Rafaeli, 2001). Rafaeli and Pratt (1993) proposed that dress style elicits attributions of power and status, since there are dress styles that symbolize higher status. Rollman (1977; in Rafaeli & Pratt, 1993) found that professors who dressed more casually (jeans, sneakers) were seen as having less status than their counterparts who dressed more formally. One of the major ways in which Steve Jobs shaped the perception of distance from his customers was his dress code. Jobs's dress style was unique, especially when compared to other executives, even in the less formal High Tech industry. Steve Jobs was known for his informal attire, and his trademark black turtleneck shirt, jeans and a pair of sneakers were the clothes he wore at every keynote presentation. These were his 'uniform,' his 'signature style.' Jobs explained that he wanted to have a uniform for all of Apple's employees to create a bond between them and the company. T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 255 When they refused, he decided to create his own personal uniform which would be identified with him (Isaacson, 2011a). It has been claimed that in the workplace men tend to have less freedom with regard to the choice of attire, and are expected to wear a suit or a professional looking shirt and pants (Burgoon, Guerrero, & Floyd, 2010). However, unlike other CEOs, or even the image of a typical executive, Jobs did not wear suits or other formal garments. He wore casual clothing, the kind one would not expect from a person in such a position of power and wealth. Thus, Jobs's dress style did not communicate power or status. His style defined him less as a high-powered High Tech executive, but more as a closer figure with less power distance. In addition, the informality and suggested youth of his dress was suggestive of similarities between Jobs's dress style and that of his customers. As clothes are used to point to similarities and differences (Pratt & Rafaeli, 2001), using clothes to enhance or create such similarities can help create perceptions of proximity. By dressing like his customers, rather than in an expensive and formal manner, Jobs created a perception of similarity between himself and his customers, conveying a message of proximity and closeness with them. Thus, through his carefully chosen attire, Steve Jobs manipulated his perceived social distance and created a sense of social closeness between himself and his customers. Furthermore, clothes can be used to distinguish people (Cappetta & Gioia, 2006), and Jobs's attire set him apart from other CEOs, such as Bill Gates. Jobs and Gates were a part of similar circles as of the 1970s when both took part in the Homebrew Computer Club, to the 2000s when they were the heads of the two largest computer companies in the world. Unlike Gates, who was usually seen wearing suits and button-down shirts, as most CEOs do, Jobs's dress style fit the 'cool kid' image. In a parody animation movie portraying a cartoon figure of Jobs versus a cartoon figure of Gates in a competition scene, Gates is portrayed as the computer nerd and Jobs as the 'cool' guy (e.g., spiky hairstyle, jeans, informal outfit, sneakers) (Faure-Brac, 2007). This 'cool' image of Jobs allowed him to overcome the image of the 'geek'3 and the possibly remote genius and weirdo profile. This perhaps made him less of an outsider to the general public (perhaps creating a positive image to his fellow geek customers). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
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The Apple Name and Logo
Logos and names are artifacts that represent and symbolize companies, and represent the organization (Baruch, 2006; Schultz, Hatch, & Ciccolella, 2006). They are graphic images that are used to create an image of an organization, communicate a message and to create certain impressions of the organization (Baruch, 2006). Logos influence individuals both on a logical conscious level and a more emotional unconscious level, since they elicit a deep intuitive experience of meaning (Baruch, 2006). Thus the Apple name and logo are artifacts that communicate messages defining Apple and Steve Jobs. In 1975 when Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak decided to turn their computer building hobby into a business, Jobs suggested the name Apple Computer Inc. He explained that "It sounded fun, spirited and not intimidating. Apple took the edge off the word computers" (Isaacson, 2011a, p. 63). Isaacson explained that the choice to name it 'Apple' was a smart choice "the word instantly signaled friendliness and simplicity" (2011a, p. 63). In 1979 Apple started working on a new computer model (which Jobs took charge of in late 1980), named Macintosh (after the McIntosh apple cultivar). It was nicknamed—and has been ever since—the Mac, continuing Apple's attempts to portray computers as friendly. Another aspect of the Apple logo is that it is an image of an apple with a bite taken out of it. The actual figure of the apple makes it seem concrete and familiar (Trope & Liberman, 2010), something that customers can easily touch and hold.4 The bite also makes the logo seem more tangible, making it easy for the customers to imagine that they had actually taken a bite.5 In contrast, the IBM, Intel or Microsoft's logos are their names. Rather than images that represent them, they represent themselves through abbreviations that reflect computers. For example Intel stands for the Integrated Electronics Corporation. Jobs and Apple chose to enhance their image by using a fun colorful image to symbolize their company (later it would turn into a sleek image). Thus, through the manipulation of the logo and firm name Apple and Jobs portrayed themselves as 'friends' with their public and as part of the same social group as their followers. This enabled Jobs to create a sense of closeness with the customers. A logo is also used to distinguish a company from others, to represent its distinctive identity and heritage, and convey a central idea or a vision (Schultz et al., 2006). By using an image that communicates friendliness, T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 257 simplicity and fun, Jobs and Apple differentiated themselves from other computer companies which were then depicted as formal and rigid. An example of this depiction of other companies can be seen in Apple's famous "Big Brother" commercial for the first Macintosh that aired during the SuperBowl in 1984. The commercial hinted at an Orwellian "1984" scenario—men marching while listening to the "Big Brother" presented on a large screen. Then a young woman holding a large hammer runs in and throws it at the screen: the narrator explains that Apple will be introducing the Macintosh, saying: "And you'll see why 1984 won't be like "1984"" (miniroll32, 2008). Jobs and Apple used the name and logo of the company to portray a different image to their customers, as a friendly company that poses an alternative to the big computer giants. This young and rebellious image created closeness between Jobs and his customers. He was 'on their side' in the battle against 'Big Brother.' Jobs and his customers are one social group fighting the 'mean companies.' This image suggests some similarity in values and characteristics between Jobs and his customers, thus creating a sense of closeness between them. Youth and Playfulness
Creating a Youthful Image
CEOs and the majority of their customers are socially and psychologically distant due to the gap in status, power, and (often) their seniority. A second mechanism that Jobs used to decrease this social distance was to use images and concepts of youth. Youth refers to a certain mindset, an attitude of freshness, vigor or spirit one holds, regardless of their actual age. Therefore, youth brings to mind informality and fun, images which are quite the opposite of the common image of a CEO (someone serious and distant who works hard and does not play). When Jobs described and referred to himself as young, this framing implied he was psychologically closer to his customers. He also took advantage of Gardner and Avolio's other processes of scripting, staging and performing (1998). Jobs presented himself as young in several ways. He was portrayed, or casted as a 'cool,' young, rebellious genius. This notion is emphasized in different stages of his life story. For example, in all the historical articles and movies on the beginning of Apple, Jobs is presented as the young guy who T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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258 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 started his own computer company out of his parents' garage. This image is related to kids playing with electronics. Later on Jobs focused on animation movies and became the co-founder and chief executive of Pixar Animation Studios, and eventually became a member of the board of directors of the Walt Disney Company in 2006. In these capacities he developed technologies for animation movies for children (e.g., Toy Story, Bugs' Life, Finding Nemo) and is credited in Toy Story (1995) as an executive producer. These roles and the type of movies he produced helped maintain an aura of fun and youth. Even at later stages in his life, after he became ill and looked older, he still highlighted the notion of youth. In his talk in 2011, after months of media absence due to his illness, he said in a formal speech to customers: "Five months ago I had a liver transplant, so I now have the liver of a mid-twenties person, who died in a car crash." Even at this stage he portrayed himself as having an organ of a young person willing to take risks (KLGCooperation, 2011). The perception of Steve Jobs as youthful was further supported by his informal dress style. A reporter described Jobs as follows: "Boyish is probably the word that best describes our first impression. He was wearing jeans and a turtleneck as he bounded up the stairs" (Gendron & Burlingham, 1989). Another means to reinforce Jobs's youthful image and to elicit closeness with his customers, was the use he made of language and slang. Jobs often spoke in a very informal colloquial way, which characterized a youthful attitude to life and business. Jobs received personal emails from customers, and in his responses the language stands out. For example, when asked by a customer named Ricky if it was really him reading his emails, Steve's answer was "Yep. I do" (Milian, 2011, p. 264). As a response to an inter- national customer complaining to Jobs about iPad stock in Europe, Jobs replied, "Are you nuts? We are doing the best we can" (Subramony, 2011). In his famous keynote presentations that were broadcast worldwide, he often used informal language to describe the products. When presenting the first iPad in 2010, Jobs describe it as "An awesome way to enjoy your music collection" (Apple, 2010) and frequently talked about the products as being "cool." Jobs and the firm also applied shorter words, resembling nicknames, to their products (Apps for applications, Mac for Macintosh, etc.). Using formal and polite language is related to greater social distance while informal colloquial language is related to social proximity (Holtgraves & Yang, 1992; Stephan, Liberman, & Trope, 2010). By using an informal lanT&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 259 guage combined with slang, Jobs created a youthful perception of himself and constructed a sense of proximity.
Playing and Having Fun
Jobs also manipulated distance by framing the use of the products, as well as the company and Jobs himself, as 'playful' and 'fun.' To reinforce these concepts Jobs used various playtime metaphors to describe the company's products. For example in one talk he referred to computers by saying that: "computers are like bicycles to our mind" (Michael Lawrence Films, 2006). The scripting and staging of these concepts are evident in Apple commercials. For example, Apple's 2011 iPod commercial starts with an image of someone sending a text message saying: "wanna play?" and then it shows young people playing together on their iPods, smiling and having fun. At the end of the commercial a slide appears which reads "Share the fun" (Apple, 2011c). In one of the "I'm a Mac, I'm a PC" Apple ads, the person representing the Mac says "I am into doing a lot of fun stuff like movies, music, podcasts and stuff like that," while the guy representing the PC responds " I also do fun stuff like time sheets and spreadsheets and pie charts" (iMediaTube, 2008). This ad further emphasized Apple's fun and playfulness as opposed to the PC's serious focus on work. Play is usually attributed to children — "kids play, adults work" (Kark, 2011a). While the work sphere is thought of as a formal environment, where one is expected to strive toward achieving defined goals and ends (Glynn, 1994), framing tasks as play leads to different outcomes, such as enjoyment and the focus on the means rather than goals and efficiency (Kark, 2011a). By promoting a playful image of Apple and its products, Jobs promoted a similar image of himself. He was described as "the ultimate end-user, the guy who is on our side" by writer Dan Lyons (as cited by Nouchi, 2010). Being the ultimate end-user does not only emphasize the similarity between Jobs and his customers but also exemplifies his playful nature as a person who enjoys "playing" with his recent inventions. Jobs's final message at the commencement speech at Stanford University in 2005 was: "stay hungry, stay foolish" (a phrase he took from the "Whole Earth Catalog").6 This message further reinforces the image of 'young' and 'playful.' Thus, using images, metaphors, language and attire, Jobs framed, scripted, staged and enacted the notion of youth. Using this mechanism skillfully, he was able to craft and transform his image from a distant, T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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260 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 leading and senior CEO, to a youthful and playful 'guy' who is perceived by people as psychologically close. Intimacy with the Product and the Leader "I have an iPhone which is the extension of me"—Cindy Gallop, Founder and CEO, IfWeRanTheWorld (Halpin, 2011). This quote reflects the deep connection Apple's customers have with their products. Creating a sense of intimacy with the product and the leader is the third mechanism used by Steve Jobs to decrease his perceived distance. He created products that people felt were a part of their identity and signified who they are as individuals. Through the deep connection people developed with their iMacs, iPhones, iPods and iPads, they experienced a strong bond with Jobs himself, who was perceived as a representation of the computer devices. This strong connection between the technology and Jobs was achieved by the presentation of computers as human, by designing them to have specific characteristics, and by connecting the customers' identities to the products.
Bonding through the Humanization of Technology
Steve Jobs saw technology in a different way than other people; he talked about technology and computers as if they were living things with whom he had an intimate relationship. Intimacy is "a form of close relatedness in which an individual shares his or her innermost emotions, experiences, and thoughts with the other and experiences empathic responsiveness, a depth of understanding and a sense of shared meaning" (Kark, 2011b, p. 424). Although this definition focuses on interactions between human beings, an emotional connection can also develop toward objects. This type of connection is evident in the relationships of Apple users with their computers and other gadgets. Guy Kawasaki (Apple's former chief evangelist) said: "no one has fallen in love with their Taurus (a computer brand)," implying that people can fall in love with their Macs (Shely, 2009).7 This attitude toward Apple products is a result of a scripting process that humanizes and personifies technology. This process involves ascribing a human role, characteristics and even abilities to the computer. In an interview in Inc. magazine, Jobs's tendency to humanize technology is expressed in the way he talks about it, as though he were talking about an T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 261 actual person with an independent will: "Sometimes the technology just doesn't want to show you what it can do" (Gendron & Burlingham, 1989). Another example of this perception of computers as somewhat human can be seen in the presentation of the first Macintosh computer in 1984. Jobs said: "we've done a lot of talking about Macintosh recently. But today, for the first time ever, I'd like to let Macintosh speak for itself." Then the computer presented itself and said: "Hello. I'm Macintosh. It sure is great to get out of that bag . . . obviously I can talk. But right now I'd like to sit back and listen. So it is with considerable pride that I introduce a man who's been like a father to me, Steve Jobs" (Isaacson, 2011a, p. 170). This presents the computer as a human being: it talks, it jokes, it sits back and listens, and it has a father. Apple's strategy of humanizing its technology was developed further in the twenty-first century, when it revealed its new iPhone in October 2011. Its newest feature is called 'Siri,' a personal assistant which will help its owner perform different tasks on their phone. It was described as "this amazing assistant, that listens to you, understands you, can answer your questions, it can even accomplish tasks for you . . . [it has] the ability to understand what you mean, and act on it" (Apple, 2011a). This human relationship is also present in the ads for the new iPhone. In these ads people are presented talking to 'Siri' as they would to a real person. For example, a woman is filmed asking her phone "What's my day look like?" and Siri answers "Not bad . . . only two meetings today" (Apple, 2011b). Talking about technology as human transforms the device from an object made of circuits, metal and plastic to a living creature, one that shares a relationship with you. Thus, Jobs, who is highly identified with the Apple products, reduced distance between his humanized products and his customers. This inevitably leads to a sense of proximity of the customers with Jobs himself.
Connecting through Physical Contact with the Product
Individuals' relationships with their Apple products and with Jobs are further elicited through the design of the products. When designing the first Macintosh, Jobs insisted that it should look 'friendly' and it was designed to look like a human face (Isaacson, 2011a). Apple's products are not only friendly looking, but they also encourage their owners to interact with them in ways that create perceived relationships, for example through T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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262 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 touch. Apple did not invent the touch screen, but its iPod Touch and especially the iPhone have made the touch device very popular. Touch symbolizes closeness; touch is the aspect of relationships that reflects and influences the nature and quality of the relationship. Above all, touch immediately enhances intimacy (Thayer, 1986). This is demonstrated in the movie MacHeads, showing a young woman waiting at a repair shop to get her computer fixed, sitting on a bench, hugging her iMac computer and petting it like an animal (a computer which weighs about 22 pounds). She appears very concerned and upset (Shely, 2009). Another feature of these electronic devices that contributes to creating this bond is their portability. Mobile devices such as iPods, iPhones, and iPads are devices that people carry in their pockets or their hands. They touch their devices, and through this constant contact they develop an intimate relationship with them. This relationship is extended to Jobs himself. People feel that when they carry their iPhone in their pocket, they carry him, as expressed by actress Martha Plimpton: "Rest in Peace, Steve Jobs. Kinda can't believe he's gone. Carrying a little part of him in my pocket every day" (Allen, 2011).
Connecting through Identity
People use objects to communicate who they are to others (Cappetta & Gioia, 2006). According to Guy Kawasaki: "People have to consider a Mac as an extension of themselves, that's just the way it is" (Shely, 2009). Apple's customers see their electronic devices as reflecting who they are:
I mean, Only mac people really put stickers all over their laptops and I think it's indicative that this is kind of something that is close to me, like my clothing and it is an identification and it really shifts the computer from being just a business application to being something personal that is mine. (Deborah Schultz, Digital Media Strategist, cited in Halpin, 2011)
Individuals' self-identity is a multidimensional construct which is dynamic and changing and can therefore be influenced by leaders (Kark &Shamir, 2002; Lord & Brown, 2001, 2004). Jobs's leadership, actions and decisions regarding Apple and its products led customers to see the products as a means to communicate their self-identity. Steve Jobs constructed Apple's products as representative of who he and his customers are. Most T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 263 of Apple's products names start with i— iMac, iPod, iPhone, as does some of its software— iTunes, iLife, iWork. The 'i' originates from the first computer Apple made after Jobs's return to the company in the 1990s, the iMac. The 'i' stands for internet, individual, instruct, inform, inspire (Zeusprp, 2011). But it is first of all 'I'—the first person singular pronoun, the word people use when referring to themselves. This choice of the letter conveys a message to customers that individuals can express and represent themselves through their devices. As can be seen in this quote from an Apple fan in the movie MacHeads: "The great thing about the mac is that you can completely customize it . . . I can self-individuate my computer in a way that has meaning to me" (Shely, 2009). Effective leadership tends to elicit personal identification with the leader. This identification is expressed when an individual's belief about a leader becomes self-defining (Kark & Shamir, 2002; Kark, Shamir, & Chen, 2003). When followers feel that their devices represent them, they feel that they share similar values with the leader, and they identify with him or her, thus creating personal identification. By eliciting customers' self-identity and presenting certain themes and values that they hold (individuality), Jobs prompted his customers to identify with Apple as a company and with him personally as a leader. This created a sense of oneness and proxi- mity between the image of Jobs and the customers. Thus, through the personalization of computers, which are brought to life as 'talking' and 'listening' individuals that people can touch, carry close to the body (e.g. the pocket) and feel are part of their innermost identity, owners can form a sense of strong bond and personal relatedness to Steve Jobs, who is perceived as the 'man behind' the devices. Visibility and Close Interaction with Customers Perhaps the most extraordinary and powerful mechanism used by Steve Jobs to reduce his distance from his customers was the way he skillfully constructed his visibility to the Apple customers and the way he structured direct interaction with them. First, as a CEO Jobs was very visible: he presented all of Apple's new products. Even when he was on medical leave in 2011, he took to the stage to present the iPad2, saying "we've been working on this product for a while and I did not want to miss today" (Apple, 2011d). His visibility was not only apparent in announcements and special events, but also when controversies and problems were encountered. T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
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264 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 In April 2011, an issue regarding customer privacy with the iPhone 4 caught the public attention. People were worried and upset when they discovered that their iPhone was delivering location-based information to Apple. Although on a medical leave, Jobs came in person to participate in a rare television interview and addressed customers' complaints (Fried, 2011). This action demonstrates that although he was a distant indirect leader, he handled short-term, momentary events by being present and in view (Yammarino, 1994). This event was not rare, since Jobs was known to have dealt many times with customer service issues personally, while interacting directly with customers. Similarly, when a customer emailed about a long wait to get his computer fixed, the Apple CEO called him personally on the phone to apologize for the wait, updated him that he had expedited the repair and thanked him for his support of Apple (Milian, 2011). This is quite an unusual act for a CEO of a company that has as many customers as Apple. This example does not only exemplify Jobs's tendency to get involved in such matters as customer service, but also demonstrates an important aspect of leader-follower relationships; namely, direct interaction between Jobs and the customers. Another way in which Jobs interacted directly with his customers was through email. His Apple email address was publicly known and he received many emails from customers; some of them elicited a response from him and were documented by his enthusiastic fans in different blogs and websites. Some of his responses were short 'yep' or 'coming,' but sometimes he engaged in longer email exchanges with customers, resembling actual conversations (Milian, 2011). These emails reflect the closeness Apple's customers felt toward him in another way. Most of these emails start with the familiar form of "Dear Steve" and not with the words 'Dear Mr. Jobs.' (Milian, 2011). Jobs's written interactions with customers encouraged them to feel they had an actual genuine close relationship with him. Jobs's interactions with Apple customers were not only email-based. In 2007, shortly after the release of the iPhone, Jobs was invited by his friend Andy Grove (the co-founder of Intel), who was teaching a business class, to a student's presentation on the iPhone. He came and posed a challenge to the student by asking difficult questions and eventually taking the stage himself (Milian, 2011). Such interactions decreased the perceived distance between Jobs and his customers. By engaging in occasional dialog with his public, Jobs managed to influence their perceptions of him and position himself as much closer than he was. T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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DISCUSSION The conceptualization of leadership distance presented here portrays leader distance as a malleable active process in which leaders can shape, re-shape, structure and transform their distance and proximity from their followers. We propose that one way in which leaders influence the processes of sense giving and meaning making is by the manipulation of distance between their figures and their followers and between the organization and its products and the followers (employees, customers, etc.). We present different ways in which leaders can actively 'do distance,' through their use of artifacts (e.g., attire and logos), the images they present of themselves and of the company (e.g., young and playful versus senior and settled), the design of their products, the type of interactions they have with their followers (e.g., intimate versus formal) and their level and type of visibility to their followers. We used the case study of Steve Jobs to explore the different ways in which leaders enact distance, suggesting that he had a unique strategy of enacting distance by eliciting a perspective of himself as a leader who was simultaneously close and distant, near and far. In his role as CEO of Apple he was distant from his customers on many dimensions: geographically, physically, in terms of power distance, and other parameters. However, he was able to decrease the sense of distance and form a sense of closeness with many of his customers, as exemplified in the analyses above. The ability of leaders to transform and affect followers' perception of their distance from them is of importance, since leader-follower distance and proximity have been suggested in the literature to result in different types of outcomes in terms of the ways the leader is perceived by the followers and in terms of their behavior. For example, distant charismatic leadership leads to an idealized image of the leader and followers' trust and confidence in him or her. It also better enables leaders to influence followers' political attitudes and behaviors (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Shamir, 1995; Waldman & Yammarino, 1999; Yagil, 1998). Close charismatic leadership, and close leadership in general, was found to create more positive affect toward the leader, and leads to identification with the leader and emulation of the leader's behavior. It was also conceptualized as leading to several follower-level outcomes, such as higher self-efficacy perceptions, greater motivation, higher performance evaluation, higher job satisfaction T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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266 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 and lower employee turnover (Napier & Ferris, 1993; Shamir, 1995; Yagil, 1998). In the case study we explored how Jobs's ability to juggle the duality of distance and proximity enabled him to benefit from both the effect of a distant leader (followers' admiration, confidence, trust and a sense of heroism and extraordinary personality) as well as from the effects of closeness (followers' positive affect, identification with the leader, and emulation of his behaviors). Thus, 'doing distance' can contribute to leaders' ability to influence and affect different forms of followers' perceptions, beliefs, affect and behaviors. We presented a framework of leadership distance that may contribute to further research on leadership processes. In addition, we have raised some issues that merit attention in future studies. Four qualifications should be added at this point. First, while we maintain that leaders can affect the sense of distance and proximity of their followers, we do not imply that leaders can always control this influence. Various contextual characteristics, such as objective distance, the organizational structure and norms, the seniority of the leader and the size of the organization, may limit leaders' ability to enact different forms of distance and proximity. Second, although we contend that leaders are able to consciously manipulate their distance from followers, it is possible that often this process may be difficult to manage consciously and may occur without the leader's awareness. Third, it is possible that the same leader may enact closeness toward one group of his or her followers and distance toward another group of followers. According to leader-member exchange theory (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; Uhl-Bien &Arnaud, 2001) and notions put forward by Klein and House (1995) on heterogeneous charismatic effects, it is possible that the same leader may behave differently toward different followers who have different motivational needs. Thus, the leader can improve his or her influence and effectiveness by enhancing closeness with one group and enforcing distance with another. For example, in the case study of Steve Jobs we focused on his relationship with his customers. However it is more than likely that had we focused on his relationship with Apple employees we may have found a different form of enacting distance and proximity. It is also possible that the same leader will enhance distance in one channel and reduce distance in another channel of communication. For example, a leader may convey a message of distance in terms of the images he uses, but have very close daily interactions with his followers. T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.
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• 267 Fourth, we do not contend that one type of distance with its related outcomes is superior or more effective than another. Rather, we believe that the relative effectiveness of different distance strategies is contingent on the circumstances and the various attributes of the context (e.g., follower group composition, task characteristics, situation of the economic markets). Furthermore, culture may be an external factor influencing leaders' ability to enact distance and closeness. While Western cultures are in general lower on power distance, Eastern cultures are higher on that dimension and perceive leaders and authority figures as inherently more distant from their followers, and accept this as the desired situation (Hofstede, 1994). Some cultures are more democratic and open to different styles of leadership; however others may not be so open to nontraditional forms of leadership. In some cultures seniority in the organization is important, and behaviors such as casual attire, using informal language and being playful may be considered childish and inappropriate. Such cultural differences may be relevant not only to different countries, but also to different industries within a country. Technology companies like Apple have a more open and informal organizational culture which allows managers and employees to be less formal in their attire and conduct. However other industries, such as manufacturing or more traditional workplaces such as banks, may wish to create a different perception of the organization and its leadership. Finally, although the framework we offer explores the leader's role as the individual who enacts distance, it is more than likely that followers may play an important role in this process (Dvir & Shamir, 2003; Ehrhart & Klein, 2001; Howell & Shamir, 2005). A leader may wish to influence his perceived distance; however followers may not be willing to accept the image he or she promotes, possibly rejecting the leader's attempts to become closer or more distant. Although 'doing distance' may be an important managerial instrument by assisting leaders in their daily work with employees, it may have a 'dark side' which is important to address. 'Doing distance' is a form of mani- pulating individuals' perceptions in order to accomplish goals of a different nature. In Apple's case, Steve Jobs's perceived proximity is possibly one of the things that made Apple more popular among customers, essentially resulting in larger revenues for the company. The use of closeness within the domain of work and business needs to also be viewed with some caution, since organizations may take advantage of followers' feelings of closeness as a means for achieving organizational goals. Thus, companies T&F PROOFS. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
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268 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 and leaders can set up proxy closeness relationships as a subtle form of attaining normative control over their employees and customers. In conclusion, we do not know the extent to which leaders' enactment of distance affects the process of meaning making and followers' perceptions and behaviors. However, the case study of Steve Jobs gives us a strong basis to argue that leaders' distance and proximity can play an important role in their attempt to influence others. The lack of a sufficient understanding of the mechanisms by which these leadership strategies are used and the way they further affect leader-follower relationships and follower outcomes suggests that further theoretical development as well as empirical testing of the phenomenon of 'doing distance' are crucial.
NOTES
1 In this paper we are interested in focusing on the theoretical concept of leadership and followership. Since our case study is focused on Apple and the leadership of Steve Jobs in the business and organizational arena, we refer to managers (CEOs) and employees, but mostly customers, when examining the leader-follower relationship. Although this may not represent all types of leader-follower relationships, it does portray various aspects of this relationship. In July 2011, Apple reported a record quarterly revenue of $28.57 billion and a record quarterly net profit of $7.31 billion, or $7.79 per diluted share, for the fiscal 2011 third quarter. The gross margin was 41.7% compared to 39.1% in the previous year's quarter. The company sold 20.34 million iPhones, 9.25 million iPads and 3.95 million Macs. Taken from: http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/07/19Apple-Reports-Third-QuarterResults.html. Geek—The word geek is a slang term, with different meanings ranging from "a computer expert or enthusiast" to "A derogatory reference to a person obsessed with intellectual pursuits for their own sake, who is also deficient in most other human attributes so as to impair the person's smooth operation within society" (Geek, n.d.). The apple with the bite also reminds people of the story of Adam and Eve, which exemplifies the commonalties and familiarity between all people. This can also be seen in a caricature from USA Today, depicting an angel welcoming Steve Jobs to heaven saying "To be honest, Mr. Jobs, the last time an apple caused so much excitement around here involved Adam, Eve and a snake." An example of the impact of Apple's logo can be seen after Jobs's death. People brought actual apples to the memorial sites created by the public at Apple stores. This reflects the deep connection made between Jobs and Apple. The Whole Earth Catalog was a counter-culture catalog, published in the 1960s and 1970s, that presented different products. It promoted an individualistic worldview, science, intellectual endeavor, blending new and old technologies (taken from: http:// www.wholeearth.com/history-whole-earth-catalog.php).
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7 We experienced such a feeling ourselves; as one of the authors of this paper described how she bought her laptop: "I went into the shop and fell in love with it [the computer] . . . I could not resist its charm. So I bought the MacbookAir."
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