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The purpose of this paper is to examine the process by which Istanbul is transforming into a
world city, examining the impact of the recent growth of cultural activities in the city.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Istanbul as a world city: a cultural perspective
Maria D. Alvarez #ükrü Yarcan
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Maria D. Alvarez #ükrü Yarcan, (2010),"Istanbul as a world city: a cultural perspective", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and
Hospitality Research, Vol. 4 Iss 3 pp. 266 - 276
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Maria D. Alvarez, (2010),"Creative cities and cultural spaces: new perspectives for city tourism", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism
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Istanbul as a world city: a cultural
perspective
Maria D. Alvarez and S¸ u¨ kru¨ Yarcan
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the process by which Istanbul is transforming into a
world city, examining the impact of the recent growth of cultural activities in the city.
Design/methodology/approach – The study focuses on the cultural and creative aspects of Istanbul,
with reference to its history, multiculturalism and recent developments in the international cultural arena.
Istanbul represents an interesting case to examine the development of a city to achieve world-class
status, despite its historical signi?cance as a center of trade and culture in the ancient world, its current
globalization and development are fairly recent.
Findings – Developments in recent years from a cultural, as well as an economic perspective provide
some indication that Istanbul is transforming into a world city. However, the ability of the city to in?uence
international cultural circles is limited by the reduced demand for cultural products by residents.
Nevertheless, Istanbul’s multiculturalism, history and its geographical position are signi?cant
advantages.
Originality/value – Little attention has been paid to the relationships between various elements in the
development of a world city. From this perspective, the paper discusses the role of culture in positioning
Istanbul as a world city, and examines its relationships with commercial activities and in?uence on
tourism, focusing on the synergetic relationship between these elements.
Keywords Tourism, Culture, Turkey, Cities, Economic development
Paper type Case study
Introduction
Modern perspectives look at the city as more than a mere concentration of people, and
consider it as a hub of trade, culture, information and industry. Because of increasing
urbanization, cities play ever more important roles in their country’s economic development
and may perform a crucial function in global or regional networks. As such, cities are
increasingly competing with one another to attract visitors, investors and residents, and to
host international events or corporate headquarters (UN-Habitat, 2006). Therefore,
researchers provide a growing attention to the city as a subject of study.
From a competitive perspective, scholars ?nd cities that offer connectivity, economic
production and cultural innovation, such as London, New York, Paris and Tokyo to be ‘‘at the
top of the world-city scale’’ (UN-Habitat, 2006, p. 10). Other emerging cities are trying to
position themselves as regional hubs, ?nancial centers or cultural meeting points, in order to
obtain a greater share of the global market. The term ‘‘world city’’ describes these spatial
concentrations, characterized by their advanced services, connections to a global network,
and in?uential role as a center of creativity (Beaverstock et al., 1999; Castells, 1996; Currid,
2006). Other terms that depict the leading cities of the world are global city, mega-city,
weltstadt, primate city and international city (Beaverstock et al., 1999; Boschken, 2008),
among others. Research on this topic takes diverse perspectives such as economics,
politics, immigration, poverty and cultural issues (Boschken, 2008) and several studies
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Maria D. Alvarez is
associate professor in the
Department of Tourism
Administration, School of
Applied Disciplines,
Bog? azic¸ i University,
Istanbul, Turkey.
S¸ u¨ kru¨ Yarcan is professor in
the Department of Tourism
Administration, Faculty of
Economics, Istanbul
University, Istanbul, Turkey.
Received December 2009
January 2010
Accepted March 2010
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focus on ranking and categorizing cities in terms of their competitiveness in relation to
various indicators of their world city status. However, to date, investigations have provided
little attention to the relationships between various elements in the development of a world
city. From this perspective, the paper discusses the role of culture in positioning Istanbul as
a world city, and examines its relationships with commercial activities and in?uence on
tourism, focusing on the synergetic relationship between these elements.
Istanbul and its recent development represent an interesting case to investigate the
interrelationships between culture, tourism and commercial activities in the creation of a city
of world status. Despite its historical background as the capital of two empires, Istanbul
suffered a period of stagnation following the proclamation of Ankara as the capital of Turkey,
in 1924. The development of the city, and its globalization, are fairly recent as Istanbul has
increased its economic signi?cance in the region, its share of international tourism and its
relevance in the global cultural arena. Furthermore, the proclamation of the city as the
European Capital of Culture in 2010 has also resulted in a growing number of cultural and
renovation projects. In this sense, the literature provides examples of cities, like Barcelona,
that have managed to combine economic development with a strong emphasis on cultural
activities and a highly successful tourism policy. Other often cited examples of successful
use of cultural projects for urban regeneration are the cases of Glasgow or Bilbao. However,
examples of thriving cities in the developed world may not address many of the issues that
developing countries are facing. That is why an analysis of case studies in emerging
countries, such as that of Istanbul, may be useful. Thus, the paper examines the process by
which Istanbul is transforming into a world city, and investigates the impact of the recent
growth of cultural activities in the city on other areas of development.
What makes a world city?
Urban researchers have used the termWorld City for many years, following Hall’s publication
of The World Cities (1966), but the concept has gradually grown in importance as achieving
world class status has been identi?ed with an increase in competitiveness. Therefore an
explicit aim of urban planners has been to enhance the status of particular cities in terms of
‘‘world-cityness’’ (Beaverstock et al., 1999, p. 455). In particular, the Istanbul Metropolitan
Municipality is focused on marketing Istanbul as a world city and attracting international
business and foreign visitors through ambitious urban transformation campaigns (Karaman,
2008). The literature on the topic of world cities has advanced greatly through the inputs of
authors such as Friedman (1986), Sassen (1991), Beaverstock et al. (1999) and others, who
have attempted to examine the question of what makes a world city. Currid (2006)
summarizes the contributions of many authors and establishes four main aspects that result
on world city status, namely the presence of ?nancial and professional services, the
prevalence of centers of command and control, including international headquarters, the
existence of ?exible specialization and an industrial district, and the creativity of the city, or
ability to generate art and cultural output. Beaverstock et al. (2000) remark on the failure by
existing frameworks to include the interconnections that the city has within a larger national
and regional context. Therefore, world cities can also be hubs for their region, and occupy
an important position within the particular geography in which they are located. The research
conducted to establish the Global City Index (Foreign Policy, 2008) has adopted this point of
view, considering the dimensions of business activity, human capital, information exchange,
cultural experience and political engagement, to classify cities according to their success in
these areas. According to this study, Istanbul is ranked as number 28 among the 60
international cities analyzed, although it is placed as number 8 in relation to the dimension of
political engagement (Foreign Policy, 2008). Other research has positioned Istanbul as a
Gamma world city (preceded by Alpha and Beta cities) from a center of production of
services viewpoint (Beaverstock et al., 1999). Yet another report (ETC, 2005) places Istanbul
in direct competition with the European cities of Berlin, Madrid, London and Rome, due to it
holding heritage, art and creative industries.
Despite the fact that different perspectives on studies of world cities have focused on
various dimensions of the concept, a growing consensus is emerging on the importance of
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culture and creativity as being a critical factor to achieve world city status. Currid (2006)
argues that New York’s dominant position among the cities of the World stems from its
creativity as an important factor of its economic development. In that sense, the concept of
‘‘creative cities’’ that become successful through their ability to attract the creative class
(Florida, 2002), is gaining popularity among urban researchers as innovation and cultural
production are considered paramount to the establishment of a city’s competitive
advantage. The cultural richness of a place is also thought to increase the city’s quality of
life, and therefore its ability to attract key talent and human capital (Yigitcanlar et al., 2008).
Other authors also consider the economic aspects of culture. For example, Scott (2007)
contends that world cities and those places that have an in?uential role in relation to global
culture are increasingly converging.
However, cultural-led regeneration, and emphasis on creative production may not always
bring success, as authenticity and experience are essential ingredients for the success of
the creative city (Holden, 2007). In that sense, Holden (2007, p. 289) evaluates Istanbul as a
‘‘city truly creative’’, not only because of its architecture, natural setting, rich food culture and
existence of bazaars, but because ‘‘a new meaning is being wrought . . . where the ancient
and the contemporary meet, where Asia and Europe meet and where faith and secularism
meet. It is exciting now because people are getting richer, building things and speculating
intellectually as well as ?nancially’’. Therefore, this paper focuses on the cultural and creative
aspects of Istanbul, with reference to its history, multiculturalism and recent developments in
the international cultural arena, as a major factor in steering the city towards world-class
status. The article also discusses the contribution of culture towards tourism and economic
development.
History and culture in Istanbul
Istanbul has a prominent place in history, as the capital of the Eastern Roman and Ottoman
empires. Constantine the Great founded the city as Constantinople, when he converted the
original Greek city of Byzantium to become the new Rome and the Christian capital of the
Roman Empire (Krautheimer, 1983). The city continued to thrive with Constantine’s
successors, as investments were made in its infrastructure, and its ports along the Sea of
Marmara and the Golden Horn were used for shipping goods, bringing in wealth to the city
(Mu¨ ller-Wiener, 1998). During the tenth to twelfth centuries, the city ?ourished and became
one of the largest cities in Europe (Mango, 1997). Constantinople boasted market places,
ports, public baths, palaces, monasteries, a hippodrome and a theatre. However, other than
its wealth and cosmopolitan character, its sacredness, as a place dedicated to the Virgin
Mary, raised the status of Constantinople as a city of the Christians (Mango, 1996).
Constantinople was conquered by the Ottomans in 1453. However, the city’s name was not
changed to Istanbul until 1923 (C¸ elik, 1993), since the Ottoman sultans declared themselves
as the successors of the Roman emperors, assuming the Byzantine heritage of the city. From
a geographical and socio-economic perspective, the city followed a similar pattern of
development as it did in the Byzantine era (Yerasimos, 1997). During that time, the city
stayed at the center of the main road network of the Ottoman Empire, and its harbors also
increased in importance. Istanbul became a very important city of the Islamic world,
dominating politics and culture in the Mediterranean, which was the cradle of civilization in
that period (Beyazit and Tosun, 2006). In the new districts, hospitals, baths, caravansaries,
theology schools and other socio-economic complexes were built around the mosques. The
city walls, the Roman aqueducts and other Byzantine structures were restored. These
buildings and historical remains constitute today an important resource for Istanbul,
witnesses to the city’s rich past as a cultural and trade center in the ancient world.
Other than the historical buildings and heritage sites, Istanbul enjoys a position as a city
where several cultures and religions cross. This cosmopolitan character of Istanbul goes
back to the Ottoman Empire when the city was repopulated with Christian, Jewish and
Moslem communities, and can still be observed today. During the long years of the Ottoman
rule, non-Moslem minority groups occupied an important place in the social structure. Thus
the city has evolved as multi-ethnic, multi-religious and multi-cultural, and at the beginning of
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the twentieth century, 57 percent of its population was composed of Jews, Armenians,
Greeks, Levantines and other Christian and European groups (Toprak, 1993). Currently,
Istanbul still harbors a large number of Europeans and other foreign residents with trade
connections with the West. However, the composition of the minority groups in the city has
changed signi?cantly, as new groups of foreigners have arrived, especially from
neighboring countries. Nevertheless, the city is European in character and a
representative of the Western values in Turkey (Mills, 2005).
Istanbul’s European character has been the focus of its successful bid to become the
European Capital of Culture in 2010, an event designed to display the city’s history and its
diverse cultural assets. The European Capital of Culture event was initiated by the European
Community in 1985, with the aim of bringing together member states through the expression
of common and diverse cultural elements (European Commission, 1985, cited in Richards
and Wilson, 2004). As the event has been expanded to include non-European Union
member states, Istanbul aims to take the advantage of the title of European Capital of Culture
to position itself as Western in character and culturally rich.
In line with developments in other cities, where festivals and cultural events are used to
create an image for the city at the global level, Istanbul also supports the creation and
revitalization of festivals, fairs and cultural events in order to promote itself as a global capital
of culture. For the last two decades, cultural events and festivals in Istanbul have grown
exponentially, while art galleries, museums and other permanent cultural spaces have also
sprung throughout the city. In the year 2004, a total of 154 festivals were organized in
Istanbul, of which at least 10 had a high potential to compete at the international level (Enlil
et al., 2008). All these events encourage international cultural exchanges and link the city to
global artistic networks, providing cultural capital/world city status to Istanbul (Yardimci,
2007). Furthermore, many different events are also focus on the locals, especially fairs. In the
last few years, a signi?cant amount of book, art and trade fairs have appeared, targeting
residents.
Cultural activities can be considered from an economic perspective, which is conveyed by
the use of the term ‘‘creative industries’’, or ‘‘cultural industries’’. Creative industries are
considered important for the city and include the production, distribution and consumption
of cultural products (Enlil et al. 2008) such as art, music, literature, fashion, architecture, etc.
In relation to Istanbul, Enlil et al. (2008) discuss fashion and ?lm making, as the main
industries other than festivals, that have a strategic importance for the city, due to their ability
to in?uence image, or the synergy that they provide with other economic activities. In this
sense, the fashion sector bene?ts from its relationship to the textile industry, an area where
Turkey, and especially Istanbul, has traditionally held a competitive advantage at the
international level. As such, fashion is instrumental in differentiating the textile product and
increasing its quality (Enlil et al., 2008). Another creative industry with potential for Istanbul is
the ?lm industry, which is increasing exponentially, both in terms of the number and the
quality of the productions. Nevertheless, this sector has yet to achieve international
recognition, and its production is mainly oriented to domestic consumption (McAdams,
2008). In contrast, Istanbul companies have managed to create themselves a well know
reputation at the international level in the design of jewellery and that of carpets and rugs.
These industries derive from traditional handicrafts, and have become areas of activity
where old and modern motifs intermix, through research and re-creation of ancient designs.
Despite the limited awareness of Turkish artists at the global level, a few exceptions exist,
such as the Nobel literature award winner, Orhan Pamuk who has contributed signi?cantly to
the image of Istanbul. Other examples are that of the poet Nazim Hikmet, the pianist Fazil
Say and the soprano Leyla Gencer. Furthermore, recent developments and events, such as
the 2010 European Capital of Culture, may also help to develop a brand name that links the
city to its history and heritage, while positioning it as a modern center of cultural production.
The transformation of the former industrial regions is part of this process, as more and more
industrial plants are converted into cultural centers, leisure facilities and museums. Other
cities have realized such successful past developments, such as along the banks of the
Thames in London and the sea front in Venice. Although similar projects take place in
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Istanbul, these are made at a low pace and are not integrated in nature. The goal of urban
regeneration projects should be to keep the cultural integrity for a sustainable urban
development (Galdini, 2007).
Several authors (Enlil et al., 2008; Kurtarir and Cengiz, 2005; McAdams, 2008) remark on the
spatial concentration of cultural activities in Istanbul. Enlil et al. state that cultural industries
are located in the city, within a cultural triangle, that also harbors most of the historical
buildings and museums in Istanbul. Especially the district of Taksim and its environs that
combines historical attractions with a nightlife and a lively atmosphere, is identi?ed as being
able to attract creative people (Kurtarir and Cengiz, 2005). This area also has the advantage
of being well communicated, as it represents one of the central nodes in the Istanbul
transportation network.
Despite the signi?cant developments of Istanbul in the cultural arena during the last decade,
there are also major problems and dif?culties that provide a challenge for the city to become
a global center of culture. First of all, the city is living an identity crisis in its aim to position
itself as Western and European, in line with its history and high percentage of European
residents. As the population of the city has increased dramatically in the last years, growing
from just over 1 million in 1960 to more than 12 million in 2008 (TURKSTAT, 2009), a
signi?cant challenge results from the change in the composition of the inhabitants brought
about by inwards migration. As migrants from rural areas in Anatolia have arrived to the city,
they have brought new values, traditions and culture. Very often, these migrants have
installed themselves in empty houses in the historical district, showing a lack of concern for
these areas and their historical signi?cance. Therefore, the culture of the past is brought into
con?ict with the customs and traditions of the newly arrived migrants.
The rapid growth of Istanbul due to internal migration also poses other signi?cant challenges
to the city. In the efforts of the municipality to position Istanbul as a world city, one major
problem derives from the great in?ux of unquali?ed labour fromrural areas. A city that draws
the creative class will be hampered by the pressing need to provide infrastructure and
housing if the place also attracts a large base of unskilled workers (McAdams, 2008). This
issue represents a major problem for Istanbul, where the historical heritage often faces
destruction as the cultural attractions con?ict with the need for spatial growth.
Another criticism that is made about Istanbul’s recent cultural development relates to the
lack of originality and authenticity of the cultural products created. In this sense, Yardimci
(2007) remarks that Western values and culture are provided as a model and reference to
judge the quality and standards of the creative productions, while other less mainstream
artistic creations are ignored. This situation results in Western culture in?uencing Istanbul
rather than the city inspiring the global cultural arena (McAdams, 2008). Furthermore,
culture emerges as another basis for economic and social disparities in the already
fragmented Istanbul, leading to the creation of a new elite that monopolizes the cultural
production and consumption in the city (Yardimci, 2007).
Despite these criticisms, both governmental and non-governmental organizations make a
signi?cant effort to combine the city’s history and heritage with more modern forms of cultural
and artistic expression. The various initiatives in this area have resulted on a considerable
spill-over effect to other areas of activity within the city, especially tourism. The relationship
between culture and tourism in the context of Istanbul, and the physical and economic
development of the city are reviewed in the next sections.
Synergy between culture and tourism in Istanbul
Culture and tourism are often viewed together as a critical combination that attracts both
visitors and investment to the area. Culture is instrumental in creating a distinctive image for
the destination, while tourism generates income that is necessary for the support and
maintenance of the cultural products and heritage assets. Urban tourists have more
discretionary income, incur in greater expenditures and have higher education levels,
coupled with interest on cultural affairs (ETC, 2005). Therefore, cities increasingly aim to
become competitive in the cultural tourism market, through their ability to provide better
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goods and services. In this sense, Istanbul has rich resources that include its cultural,
historical and heritage sites, which are paramount to boost the attraction of the city.
Therefore, tourism in Istanbul is predominantly urban in character, in line with these
resources. In the recent years the inbound international tourism demand to Istanbul has
increased noticeably, and the city has been ranked in 2006 as the most visited urban
destination in Europe (Bremner, 2007). The number of foreign visitors to Istanbul in the year
2007 was 6.5 million, while this number increased to 7.3 million in 2008, despite the World
economic crisis (Istanbul Directorate of Culture and Tourism, 2009).
The competitiveness of the city is derived from its history, architecture, heritage and vibrant
modern culture, its diversity, as well as the existence of various cultural attractions such as
museums, art galleries, exhibitions, fairs and festivals throughout the year. In addition,
Istanbul boasts a lively nightlife and entertainment, as well as a rich food culture.
Furthermore, the city has expanded its infrastructure and superstructure signi?cantly in
recent years, with the construction of a second international airport, meeting facilities and a
greater hotel capacity. The market for luxury hotels is corporate travelers, meetings and
incentive participants, and up-market cultural tourists. Some city hotel chains have
residences fully equipped to cater for business and corporate travelers. Along with the
international chain hotels, local investors have also invested in luxury and other category
hotels in Istanbul. Recently a new budget type of ‘‘city hotel’’ concept, with moderate rates
but complemented by corporate facilities, has been introduced. Furthermore, a spill over
effect of the newinternational airport on the Asian side of the city has resulted on the opening
of new budget type city hotels on that part of the city. This restructuring of the city’s
infrastructure and superstructure affects business, meetings, and urban tourism demand.
These various tourism types are related to each other, creating a synergy between the
demand components.
Restoration projects, gentri?cation in the old city (Ergu¨ n and Du¨ ndar, 2004), urban
regeneration schemes and restored/reconstructed wooden houses have all changed the
physical outlook and the image of Istanbul. The formerly abandoned historical quarters have
become locations for tourism investments, accommodation establishments, restaurants and
entertainment facilities. Hence such investments create a new image for the city. The historic
minority neighborhoods have also been developed through particular representations that
articulate a modern and European city character. A revival of Istanbul’s past minority history
and identity has reshaped the city’s narrative (Mills, 2005) with emphasis on culture and
heritage. In this respect urban tourism in Istanbul is used as an ef?cient tool to convey a
favorable city image.
The historic peninsula was, until recently, unable to meet the demands of the increased
vehicle traf?c. The implementation of a tramway system and the conversion of a large
section of the historic peninsula to a pedestrian urban space, has added to the
attractiveness of the district. The movement of some businesses outside the area and the
transformation of some of the evacuated buildings into shopping centers for foreign visitors
have also contributed to the tourism business. The reconstructed historic peninsula as a
tourist space has become attractive both for Istanbulites and outsiders (Gu¨ r, 2002). A similar
development exists in other districts such as Galata and Taksim (Ergu¨ n and Du¨ ndar, 2004),
and at some locations along the Bosphorus.
The cooperation between tourism and culture needs to be fostered through the creation of a
platform for collaboration, both at the governmental and non-governmental level. Therefore,
in order to successfully link tourism and culture in a city, an effective partnership between
stakeholders in both sectors should be created (OECD, 2009). This may be a challenging
task, mainly because tourism and culture may have diverse motivations and reasons for
existence, as the former is more focused on economic considerations, while the latter is
concerned with creative productivity and other non-pro?t oriented motives (OECD, 2009).
This collaboration is encouraged through governmental institutions, where culture and
tourismare included under the same organization. This cooperation also exists in the case of
the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, as well as its representative, the Istanbul Directorate for
Culture and Tourism. This partnership may also be observed through the structure of some
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recent non-governmental organizations, such as the Istanbul 2010 European Capital of
Culture Agency, which is organized under two main areas of activity; culture and tourism.
Thus, at the governance level, the synergy between culture and tourism is formally
recognized. In practice, however, these two areas of activity often compete with each other
within the organization for a more in?uential role and a greater number of resources.
Economic and physical development in Istanbul
Despite Istanbul’s former signi?cance as a focus of international trade, commerce and a
center of production and cultural life, the city underwent a period of stagnation after the
proclamation of Ankara as the capital in 1924, and did not regain importance until the 1980s,
when free market economy rules were implemented in Turkey. Thus the role of Istanbul in the
Turkish economy strengthened. The transformation of the cities from an industrial to a global
place, where the service sectors are dominant, has signi?cantly affected their development
by (Ergu¨ n and Du¨ ndar, 2004). This process has occurred in the case of Istanbul.
Considerable state funds were allocated to the Istanbul Municipality and large-scale
projects were launched to transform the city into a business and ?nancial center, to
encourage investments, to develop the private sector and to enhance the city’s image
throughout the 1980s (Keyder and O
¨
ncu¨ , 1993; Tokatli and Boyaci, 1999; Uzun, 2007). As
the city started to change, the spatiality of this transformation is observed in the skyline of
Istanbul along the highways in the newly developed regions. A new central business district
formed along the new highways has attracted a high concentration of headquarters of large
companies (Tokatli and Boyaci, 1999). Of?ce towers, trade centers, shopping malls and
luxury hotels are hallmarks that signify the integration of metropolises into global capitalism
(O
¨
ncu¨ and Weyland, 1997). Such developments are symbolized in Istanbul by skyscrapers,
malls, company headquarters, ?nancial institutions, all located in the new central business
district, as well as luxury hotels catering to the international clientele, the domestic elites and
the rich Istanbulites.
The role of Istanbul has also gained importance in the region owing to the development of
relationships with the Russian Federation and CIS countries. Istanbul has become a center
of the hinterland formed by the countries bordering the Balkans, Caucassia, Turkic
Republics, Middle East and the Black Sea (Berko¨ z and Eyu¨ boglu, 2007; Genis, 2004) as
evidenced by the increasing number of visitors from these countries. Moreover, the
geographical location of the city, together with its increasing signi?cance in the region are
moving Istanbul closer to the goal of becoming a regional hub in the Euro-Asian region as a
global gateway city, a regional provider of ?nancial services and a logistic center (OECD,
2008).
The economic boomand the rapid increase in the city’s population have also led to a number
of infrastructure investments including a metro line, a tramway and a funicular system. An
important factor in the location preferences of companies is the extent of the infrastructure
and urban renewal investments realized. One of the main triggering factors in increasing the
foreign visitor’s demand to Istanbul is the transport infrastructure works undertaken by the
Municipality. However, although signi?cant investments have been made to Istanbul’s
transportation system, the lack in the provision of information regarding the network to
visitors is a problem.
Istanbul has also become better connected internationally thanks to the expansion of the
new Atatu¨ rk International Airport and the opening of the Sabiha Gokc¸ en International Airport
on the Asian side of the city. As an increasingly large range of cultural activities and more
effective marketing campaigns have enhanced the image of Istanbul as a tourism
destination, the role of the low cost airlines has become crucial in directing European visitor
traf?c. The low cost airlines cater for frequent ?yers, weekend visitors and medium budget
cultural tourists and therefore they hold an important role in turning Istanbul into a
fashionable urban destination. Recently both the number of foreign low cost airlines and
privately owned Turkish airlines has increased, so that currently, the seat capacity of the
privately owned local companies exceeds that of the ?ag carrier Turkish Airlines.
Furthermore, most of the well-known European low cost airlines ?y to Istanbul, together with
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privately owned Turkish carriers. Their passengers mainly look for entertainment and culture
in Istanbul, and they also are above average in terms of income and high spending.
Therefore the impact of these airlines has been considerable, as they have brought a
substantial growth of the market through low prices and simpli?ed fare structures. Low
airfares encourage a different tourismproduct, such as city break holidays and weekend city
packages.
The economic development of cities stimulates high income that creates additional demand
for recreation, entertainment, culture, shopping, lodging and conference facilities (Ergu¨ n
and Du¨ ndar, 2004). In recent years shopping malls, recreation facilities, green areas,
restaurants, museums, art galleries and music halls have not only increased but they have
also become diversi?ed. These built spaces have increased the demand for leisure of the
Istanbulites and attracted new foreign visitors from nearby European countries, as Istanbul
is seen to be a ‘‘cool city’’. The internationalization of the city has also increased the demand
for luxury accommodation, apart-hotels and residences as well as new and modern of?ce
spaces. In this respect a synergy between tourism and business exists. The business needs
of corporate travelers and meeting participants are met extensively in Istanbul through the
stated facilities. On the other hand visitors to Istanbul may also extend their visits to bene?t
from the richness of culture and related amenities that are now available in the city.
Despite the economic development of Istanbul, the city is not currently contributing to the
global economy through the production of original products and services that are exported
to the world. Although the services industry has developed considerably, this sector has
done so through foreign companies, which have come to the city, bringing their views and
values as well as their expertise. Thus, at this stage of development, globalization works one
way, with Istanbul on the receiving end, rather than on the in?uencing side.
Conclusions
The developments in recent years from a cultural, as well as an economic perspective,
provide some indication that Istanbul is transforming into a world city. However, the degree
of change is in most cases externally induced, since the role of Istanbul in the world
economy is limited by the capacity of Turkey to produce internationally recognized products
and brands. Similarly, the contribution of Istanbul to world creativity and cultural production
is reduced. This situation is re?ected in the ranking of the city among other mega-cities of the
world, according to a study by Foreign Policy (2008). In this report, Istanbul is placed as
number 43 among 60 cities in terms of cultural and creative production, although the city is
ranked as eighth in relation to political in?uence and thirteenth in terms of human capital. The
relatively favorable position of the city in terms of human capital indicates that future
prospects may be more favorable.
One of the reasons for the low level of originality in the cultural production of Istanbul may be
the reduced demand for cultural products and therefore facilities. The inequalities in the
distribution of the income, and the often poor living conditions of the migrants, are the main
causes for a concentration of demand for culture in the hands of a few. Furthermore, this elite
also happens to be the sector of the population which is most Westernized. Thus the cultural
products that are produced for the consumption of this group are necessarily based on
Western values, in order to meet the expectations and preferences of this target market. As
the education level of the majority of the residents increase, so their appreciation and
demand for cultural products may grow, bringing other more diverse productions.
In this sense, the Istanbul municipality may play a signi?cant role in increasing the
production of cultural products for the middle classes. Since the 1980s, the municipality has
aimed to transform Istanbul into a world city. Signi?cant investments in infrastructure and
physical alteration of the city have been enormous. However, other than these material
transformations, no substantive change has been done from the standpoint of cultural
industries. Investments in cultural activities such as theatres, museums, musicals, have
been mainly left to private initiatives. These ventures have therefore been made from a
private sector point of view, and they have mainly catered to an elite. Nevertheless, this
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situation is slowly improving, as the municipality is starting to address the needs of the
residents from a non-physical perspective.
As Istanbul aims to become more creative and a world city, a signi?cant advantage is
brought by its history of multi-ethnicity and multiculturalism, which still endures today.
Istanbul boasts a tradition of acceptance of diversity, which is derived from its ancient
cosmopolitan character. As such, foreigners from surrounding countries have arrived to
Istanbul in recent years, creating communities that are currently tightly knit into the fabric of
the city. The challenge for the city is being able to focus and utilize the creative capabilities of
its diverse inhabitants to create narratives and cultural representations that in?uence culture
at a global level.
The capability of Istanbul to become a leading city of the world is increased by its
geographical position at the cross roads of Europe and Asia, and its situation in the Middle
East. Although the instability in the region has been a signi?cant threat for Turkey and
Istanbul, it has also presented an unforeseen opportunity. Successive con?icts and wars
have been detrimental to neighboring regions, causing their cities to become rundown, and
under developed. Thus, Istanbul has been left as the only city in the region of the Balkans,
Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East, with a signi?cant chance of becoming a world
city. One of the factors that is transforming Istanbul into a world city is its proximity to the
developed countries in Europe. Accordingly, in line with the center-periphery hypothesis of
the development theory, Istanbul is emerging as a world class city within the nearest
periphery of Europe. This has also led to an increased weight of Istanbul in the region,
making it a hub for logistics, ?nance and trade. Whether Istanbul can also become a global
cultural capital for the region is yet to be seen.
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About the authors
Maria D. Alvarez is an associate professor in the Department of Tourism Administration at
Bog? azic¸ i University. She holds a PhD in marketing from Bog? azic¸ i University (2003). She
carries out research in the area of tourist behavior, e-marketing and destination marketing.
Maria D. Alvarez is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: alvarezm@
boun.edu.tr
S¸ u¨ kru¨ Yarcan is a professor in the Department of Tourism Administration at Istanbul
University. He holds a PhD in economics from Istanbul University (1992). His research
interests are in the area of Turkish tourism, tourism in Istanbul and tour operators.
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This article has been cited by:
1. Olga Kolotouchkina, Gildo Seisdedos. 2016. The urban cultural appeal matrix: Identifying key elements of the cultural city
brand profile using the example of Madrid. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy . [CrossRef]
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doc_608112472.pdf
The purpose of this paper is to examine the process by which Istanbul is transforming into a
world city, examining the impact of the recent growth of cultural activities in the city.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Istanbul as a world city: a cultural perspective
Maria D. Alvarez #ükrü Yarcan
Article information:
To cite this document:
Maria D. Alvarez #ükrü Yarcan, (2010),"Istanbul as a world city: a cultural perspective", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and
Hospitality Research, Vol. 4 Iss 3 pp. 266 - 276
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Istanbul as a world city: a cultural
perspective
Maria D. Alvarez and S¸ u¨ kru¨ Yarcan
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the process by which Istanbul is transforming into a
world city, examining the impact of the recent growth of cultural activities in the city.
Design/methodology/approach – The study focuses on the cultural and creative aspects of Istanbul,
with reference to its history, multiculturalism and recent developments in the international cultural arena.
Istanbul represents an interesting case to examine the development of a city to achieve world-class
status, despite its historical signi?cance as a center of trade and culture in the ancient world, its current
globalization and development are fairly recent.
Findings – Developments in recent years from a cultural, as well as an economic perspective provide
some indication that Istanbul is transforming into a world city. However, the ability of the city to in?uence
international cultural circles is limited by the reduced demand for cultural products by residents.
Nevertheless, Istanbul’s multiculturalism, history and its geographical position are signi?cant
advantages.
Originality/value – Little attention has been paid to the relationships between various elements in the
development of a world city. From this perspective, the paper discusses the role of culture in positioning
Istanbul as a world city, and examines its relationships with commercial activities and in?uence on
tourism, focusing on the synergetic relationship between these elements.
Keywords Tourism, Culture, Turkey, Cities, Economic development
Paper type Case study
Introduction
Modern perspectives look at the city as more than a mere concentration of people, and
consider it as a hub of trade, culture, information and industry. Because of increasing
urbanization, cities play ever more important roles in their country’s economic development
and may perform a crucial function in global or regional networks. As such, cities are
increasingly competing with one another to attract visitors, investors and residents, and to
host international events or corporate headquarters (UN-Habitat, 2006). Therefore,
researchers provide a growing attention to the city as a subject of study.
From a competitive perspective, scholars ?nd cities that offer connectivity, economic
production and cultural innovation, such as London, New York, Paris and Tokyo to be ‘‘at the
top of the world-city scale’’ (UN-Habitat, 2006, p. 10). Other emerging cities are trying to
position themselves as regional hubs, ?nancial centers or cultural meeting points, in order to
obtain a greater share of the global market. The term ‘‘world city’’ describes these spatial
concentrations, characterized by their advanced services, connections to a global network,
and in?uential role as a center of creativity (Beaverstock et al., 1999; Castells, 1996; Currid,
2006). Other terms that depict the leading cities of the world are global city, mega-city,
weltstadt, primate city and international city (Beaverstock et al., 1999; Boschken, 2008),
among others. Research on this topic takes diverse perspectives such as economics,
politics, immigration, poverty and cultural issues (Boschken, 2008) and several studies
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VOL. 4 NO. 3 2010, pp. 266-276, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/17506181011067646
Maria D. Alvarez is
associate professor in the
Department of Tourism
Administration, School of
Applied Disciplines,
Bog? azic¸ i University,
Istanbul, Turkey.
S¸ u¨ kru¨ Yarcan is professor in
the Department of Tourism
Administration, Faculty of
Economics, Istanbul
University, Istanbul, Turkey.
Received December 2009
January 2010
Accepted March 2010
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focus on ranking and categorizing cities in terms of their competitiveness in relation to
various indicators of their world city status. However, to date, investigations have provided
little attention to the relationships between various elements in the development of a world
city. From this perspective, the paper discusses the role of culture in positioning Istanbul as
a world city, and examines its relationships with commercial activities and in?uence on
tourism, focusing on the synergetic relationship between these elements.
Istanbul and its recent development represent an interesting case to investigate the
interrelationships between culture, tourism and commercial activities in the creation of a city
of world status. Despite its historical background as the capital of two empires, Istanbul
suffered a period of stagnation following the proclamation of Ankara as the capital of Turkey,
in 1924. The development of the city, and its globalization, are fairly recent as Istanbul has
increased its economic signi?cance in the region, its share of international tourism and its
relevance in the global cultural arena. Furthermore, the proclamation of the city as the
European Capital of Culture in 2010 has also resulted in a growing number of cultural and
renovation projects. In this sense, the literature provides examples of cities, like Barcelona,
that have managed to combine economic development with a strong emphasis on cultural
activities and a highly successful tourism policy. Other often cited examples of successful
use of cultural projects for urban regeneration are the cases of Glasgow or Bilbao. However,
examples of thriving cities in the developed world may not address many of the issues that
developing countries are facing. That is why an analysis of case studies in emerging
countries, such as that of Istanbul, may be useful. Thus, the paper examines the process by
which Istanbul is transforming into a world city, and investigates the impact of the recent
growth of cultural activities in the city on other areas of development.
What makes a world city?
Urban researchers have used the termWorld City for many years, following Hall’s publication
of The World Cities (1966), but the concept has gradually grown in importance as achieving
world class status has been identi?ed with an increase in competitiveness. Therefore an
explicit aim of urban planners has been to enhance the status of particular cities in terms of
‘‘world-cityness’’ (Beaverstock et al., 1999, p. 455). In particular, the Istanbul Metropolitan
Municipality is focused on marketing Istanbul as a world city and attracting international
business and foreign visitors through ambitious urban transformation campaigns (Karaman,
2008). The literature on the topic of world cities has advanced greatly through the inputs of
authors such as Friedman (1986), Sassen (1991), Beaverstock et al. (1999) and others, who
have attempted to examine the question of what makes a world city. Currid (2006)
summarizes the contributions of many authors and establishes four main aspects that result
on world city status, namely the presence of ?nancial and professional services, the
prevalence of centers of command and control, including international headquarters, the
existence of ?exible specialization and an industrial district, and the creativity of the city, or
ability to generate art and cultural output. Beaverstock et al. (2000) remark on the failure by
existing frameworks to include the interconnections that the city has within a larger national
and regional context. Therefore, world cities can also be hubs for their region, and occupy
an important position within the particular geography in which they are located. The research
conducted to establish the Global City Index (Foreign Policy, 2008) has adopted this point of
view, considering the dimensions of business activity, human capital, information exchange,
cultural experience and political engagement, to classify cities according to their success in
these areas. According to this study, Istanbul is ranked as number 28 among the 60
international cities analyzed, although it is placed as number 8 in relation to the dimension of
political engagement (Foreign Policy, 2008). Other research has positioned Istanbul as a
Gamma world city (preceded by Alpha and Beta cities) from a center of production of
services viewpoint (Beaverstock et al., 1999). Yet another report (ETC, 2005) places Istanbul
in direct competition with the European cities of Berlin, Madrid, London and Rome, due to it
holding heritage, art and creative industries.
Despite the fact that different perspectives on studies of world cities have focused on
various dimensions of the concept, a growing consensus is emerging on the importance of
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culture and creativity as being a critical factor to achieve world city status. Currid (2006)
argues that New York’s dominant position among the cities of the World stems from its
creativity as an important factor of its economic development. In that sense, the concept of
‘‘creative cities’’ that become successful through their ability to attract the creative class
(Florida, 2002), is gaining popularity among urban researchers as innovation and cultural
production are considered paramount to the establishment of a city’s competitive
advantage. The cultural richness of a place is also thought to increase the city’s quality of
life, and therefore its ability to attract key talent and human capital (Yigitcanlar et al., 2008).
Other authors also consider the economic aspects of culture. For example, Scott (2007)
contends that world cities and those places that have an in?uential role in relation to global
culture are increasingly converging.
However, cultural-led regeneration, and emphasis on creative production may not always
bring success, as authenticity and experience are essential ingredients for the success of
the creative city (Holden, 2007). In that sense, Holden (2007, p. 289) evaluates Istanbul as a
‘‘city truly creative’’, not only because of its architecture, natural setting, rich food culture and
existence of bazaars, but because ‘‘a new meaning is being wrought . . . where the ancient
and the contemporary meet, where Asia and Europe meet and where faith and secularism
meet. It is exciting now because people are getting richer, building things and speculating
intellectually as well as ?nancially’’. Therefore, this paper focuses on the cultural and creative
aspects of Istanbul, with reference to its history, multiculturalism and recent developments in
the international cultural arena, as a major factor in steering the city towards world-class
status. The article also discusses the contribution of culture towards tourism and economic
development.
History and culture in Istanbul
Istanbul has a prominent place in history, as the capital of the Eastern Roman and Ottoman
empires. Constantine the Great founded the city as Constantinople, when he converted the
original Greek city of Byzantium to become the new Rome and the Christian capital of the
Roman Empire (Krautheimer, 1983). The city continued to thrive with Constantine’s
successors, as investments were made in its infrastructure, and its ports along the Sea of
Marmara and the Golden Horn were used for shipping goods, bringing in wealth to the city
(Mu¨ ller-Wiener, 1998). During the tenth to twelfth centuries, the city ?ourished and became
one of the largest cities in Europe (Mango, 1997). Constantinople boasted market places,
ports, public baths, palaces, monasteries, a hippodrome and a theatre. However, other than
its wealth and cosmopolitan character, its sacredness, as a place dedicated to the Virgin
Mary, raised the status of Constantinople as a city of the Christians (Mango, 1996).
Constantinople was conquered by the Ottomans in 1453. However, the city’s name was not
changed to Istanbul until 1923 (C¸ elik, 1993), since the Ottoman sultans declared themselves
as the successors of the Roman emperors, assuming the Byzantine heritage of the city. From
a geographical and socio-economic perspective, the city followed a similar pattern of
development as it did in the Byzantine era (Yerasimos, 1997). During that time, the city
stayed at the center of the main road network of the Ottoman Empire, and its harbors also
increased in importance. Istanbul became a very important city of the Islamic world,
dominating politics and culture in the Mediterranean, which was the cradle of civilization in
that period (Beyazit and Tosun, 2006). In the new districts, hospitals, baths, caravansaries,
theology schools and other socio-economic complexes were built around the mosques. The
city walls, the Roman aqueducts and other Byzantine structures were restored. These
buildings and historical remains constitute today an important resource for Istanbul,
witnesses to the city’s rich past as a cultural and trade center in the ancient world.
Other than the historical buildings and heritage sites, Istanbul enjoys a position as a city
where several cultures and religions cross. This cosmopolitan character of Istanbul goes
back to the Ottoman Empire when the city was repopulated with Christian, Jewish and
Moslem communities, and can still be observed today. During the long years of the Ottoman
rule, non-Moslem minority groups occupied an important place in the social structure. Thus
the city has evolved as multi-ethnic, multi-religious and multi-cultural, and at the beginning of
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the twentieth century, 57 percent of its population was composed of Jews, Armenians,
Greeks, Levantines and other Christian and European groups (Toprak, 1993). Currently,
Istanbul still harbors a large number of Europeans and other foreign residents with trade
connections with the West. However, the composition of the minority groups in the city has
changed signi?cantly, as new groups of foreigners have arrived, especially from
neighboring countries. Nevertheless, the city is European in character and a
representative of the Western values in Turkey (Mills, 2005).
Istanbul’s European character has been the focus of its successful bid to become the
European Capital of Culture in 2010, an event designed to display the city’s history and its
diverse cultural assets. The European Capital of Culture event was initiated by the European
Community in 1985, with the aim of bringing together member states through the expression
of common and diverse cultural elements (European Commission, 1985, cited in Richards
and Wilson, 2004). As the event has been expanded to include non-European Union
member states, Istanbul aims to take the advantage of the title of European Capital of Culture
to position itself as Western in character and culturally rich.
In line with developments in other cities, where festivals and cultural events are used to
create an image for the city at the global level, Istanbul also supports the creation and
revitalization of festivals, fairs and cultural events in order to promote itself as a global capital
of culture. For the last two decades, cultural events and festivals in Istanbul have grown
exponentially, while art galleries, museums and other permanent cultural spaces have also
sprung throughout the city. In the year 2004, a total of 154 festivals were organized in
Istanbul, of which at least 10 had a high potential to compete at the international level (Enlil
et al., 2008). All these events encourage international cultural exchanges and link the city to
global artistic networks, providing cultural capital/world city status to Istanbul (Yardimci,
2007). Furthermore, many different events are also focus on the locals, especially fairs. In the
last few years, a signi?cant amount of book, art and trade fairs have appeared, targeting
residents.
Cultural activities can be considered from an economic perspective, which is conveyed by
the use of the term ‘‘creative industries’’, or ‘‘cultural industries’’. Creative industries are
considered important for the city and include the production, distribution and consumption
of cultural products (Enlil et al. 2008) such as art, music, literature, fashion, architecture, etc.
In relation to Istanbul, Enlil et al. (2008) discuss fashion and ?lm making, as the main
industries other than festivals, that have a strategic importance for the city, due to their ability
to in?uence image, or the synergy that they provide with other economic activities. In this
sense, the fashion sector bene?ts from its relationship to the textile industry, an area where
Turkey, and especially Istanbul, has traditionally held a competitive advantage at the
international level. As such, fashion is instrumental in differentiating the textile product and
increasing its quality (Enlil et al., 2008). Another creative industry with potential for Istanbul is
the ?lm industry, which is increasing exponentially, both in terms of the number and the
quality of the productions. Nevertheless, this sector has yet to achieve international
recognition, and its production is mainly oriented to domestic consumption (McAdams,
2008). In contrast, Istanbul companies have managed to create themselves a well know
reputation at the international level in the design of jewellery and that of carpets and rugs.
These industries derive from traditional handicrafts, and have become areas of activity
where old and modern motifs intermix, through research and re-creation of ancient designs.
Despite the limited awareness of Turkish artists at the global level, a few exceptions exist,
such as the Nobel literature award winner, Orhan Pamuk who has contributed signi?cantly to
the image of Istanbul. Other examples are that of the poet Nazim Hikmet, the pianist Fazil
Say and the soprano Leyla Gencer. Furthermore, recent developments and events, such as
the 2010 European Capital of Culture, may also help to develop a brand name that links the
city to its history and heritage, while positioning it as a modern center of cultural production.
The transformation of the former industrial regions is part of this process, as more and more
industrial plants are converted into cultural centers, leisure facilities and museums. Other
cities have realized such successful past developments, such as along the banks of the
Thames in London and the sea front in Venice. Although similar projects take place in
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Istanbul, these are made at a low pace and are not integrated in nature. The goal of urban
regeneration projects should be to keep the cultural integrity for a sustainable urban
development (Galdini, 2007).
Several authors (Enlil et al., 2008; Kurtarir and Cengiz, 2005; McAdams, 2008) remark on the
spatial concentration of cultural activities in Istanbul. Enlil et al. state that cultural industries
are located in the city, within a cultural triangle, that also harbors most of the historical
buildings and museums in Istanbul. Especially the district of Taksim and its environs that
combines historical attractions with a nightlife and a lively atmosphere, is identi?ed as being
able to attract creative people (Kurtarir and Cengiz, 2005). This area also has the advantage
of being well communicated, as it represents one of the central nodes in the Istanbul
transportation network.
Despite the signi?cant developments of Istanbul in the cultural arena during the last decade,
there are also major problems and dif?culties that provide a challenge for the city to become
a global center of culture. First of all, the city is living an identity crisis in its aim to position
itself as Western and European, in line with its history and high percentage of European
residents. As the population of the city has increased dramatically in the last years, growing
from just over 1 million in 1960 to more than 12 million in 2008 (TURKSTAT, 2009), a
signi?cant challenge results from the change in the composition of the inhabitants brought
about by inwards migration. As migrants from rural areas in Anatolia have arrived to the city,
they have brought new values, traditions and culture. Very often, these migrants have
installed themselves in empty houses in the historical district, showing a lack of concern for
these areas and their historical signi?cance. Therefore, the culture of the past is brought into
con?ict with the customs and traditions of the newly arrived migrants.
The rapid growth of Istanbul due to internal migration also poses other signi?cant challenges
to the city. In the efforts of the municipality to position Istanbul as a world city, one major
problem derives from the great in?ux of unquali?ed labour fromrural areas. A city that draws
the creative class will be hampered by the pressing need to provide infrastructure and
housing if the place also attracts a large base of unskilled workers (McAdams, 2008). This
issue represents a major problem for Istanbul, where the historical heritage often faces
destruction as the cultural attractions con?ict with the need for spatial growth.
Another criticism that is made about Istanbul’s recent cultural development relates to the
lack of originality and authenticity of the cultural products created. In this sense, Yardimci
(2007) remarks that Western values and culture are provided as a model and reference to
judge the quality and standards of the creative productions, while other less mainstream
artistic creations are ignored. This situation results in Western culture in?uencing Istanbul
rather than the city inspiring the global cultural arena (McAdams, 2008). Furthermore,
culture emerges as another basis for economic and social disparities in the already
fragmented Istanbul, leading to the creation of a new elite that monopolizes the cultural
production and consumption in the city (Yardimci, 2007).
Despite these criticisms, both governmental and non-governmental organizations make a
signi?cant effort to combine the city’s history and heritage with more modern forms of cultural
and artistic expression. The various initiatives in this area have resulted on a considerable
spill-over effect to other areas of activity within the city, especially tourism. The relationship
between culture and tourism in the context of Istanbul, and the physical and economic
development of the city are reviewed in the next sections.
Synergy between culture and tourism in Istanbul
Culture and tourism are often viewed together as a critical combination that attracts both
visitors and investment to the area. Culture is instrumental in creating a distinctive image for
the destination, while tourism generates income that is necessary for the support and
maintenance of the cultural products and heritage assets. Urban tourists have more
discretionary income, incur in greater expenditures and have higher education levels,
coupled with interest on cultural affairs (ETC, 2005). Therefore, cities increasingly aim to
become competitive in the cultural tourism market, through their ability to provide better
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goods and services. In this sense, Istanbul has rich resources that include its cultural,
historical and heritage sites, which are paramount to boost the attraction of the city.
Therefore, tourism in Istanbul is predominantly urban in character, in line with these
resources. In the recent years the inbound international tourism demand to Istanbul has
increased noticeably, and the city has been ranked in 2006 as the most visited urban
destination in Europe (Bremner, 2007). The number of foreign visitors to Istanbul in the year
2007 was 6.5 million, while this number increased to 7.3 million in 2008, despite the World
economic crisis (Istanbul Directorate of Culture and Tourism, 2009).
The competitiveness of the city is derived from its history, architecture, heritage and vibrant
modern culture, its diversity, as well as the existence of various cultural attractions such as
museums, art galleries, exhibitions, fairs and festivals throughout the year. In addition,
Istanbul boasts a lively nightlife and entertainment, as well as a rich food culture.
Furthermore, the city has expanded its infrastructure and superstructure signi?cantly in
recent years, with the construction of a second international airport, meeting facilities and a
greater hotel capacity. The market for luxury hotels is corporate travelers, meetings and
incentive participants, and up-market cultural tourists. Some city hotel chains have
residences fully equipped to cater for business and corporate travelers. Along with the
international chain hotels, local investors have also invested in luxury and other category
hotels in Istanbul. Recently a new budget type of ‘‘city hotel’’ concept, with moderate rates
but complemented by corporate facilities, has been introduced. Furthermore, a spill over
effect of the newinternational airport on the Asian side of the city has resulted on the opening
of new budget type city hotels on that part of the city. This restructuring of the city’s
infrastructure and superstructure affects business, meetings, and urban tourism demand.
These various tourism types are related to each other, creating a synergy between the
demand components.
Restoration projects, gentri?cation in the old city (Ergu¨ n and Du¨ ndar, 2004), urban
regeneration schemes and restored/reconstructed wooden houses have all changed the
physical outlook and the image of Istanbul. The formerly abandoned historical quarters have
become locations for tourism investments, accommodation establishments, restaurants and
entertainment facilities. Hence such investments create a new image for the city. The historic
minority neighborhoods have also been developed through particular representations that
articulate a modern and European city character. A revival of Istanbul’s past minority history
and identity has reshaped the city’s narrative (Mills, 2005) with emphasis on culture and
heritage. In this respect urban tourism in Istanbul is used as an ef?cient tool to convey a
favorable city image.
The historic peninsula was, until recently, unable to meet the demands of the increased
vehicle traf?c. The implementation of a tramway system and the conversion of a large
section of the historic peninsula to a pedestrian urban space, has added to the
attractiveness of the district. The movement of some businesses outside the area and the
transformation of some of the evacuated buildings into shopping centers for foreign visitors
have also contributed to the tourism business. The reconstructed historic peninsula as a
tourist space has become attractive both for Istanbulites and outsiders (Gu¨ r, 2002). A similar
development exists in other districts such as Galata and Taksim (Ergu¨ n and Du¨ ndar, 2004),
and at some locations along the Bosphorus.
The cooperation between tourism and culture needs to be fostered through the creation of a
platform for collaboration, both at the governmental and non-governmental level. Therefore,
in order to successfully link tourism and culture in a city, an effective partnership between
stakeholders in both sectors should be created (OECD, 2009). This may be a challenging
task, mainly because tourism and culture may have diverse motivations and reasons for
existence, as the former is more focused on economic considerations, while the latter is
concerned with creative productivity and other non-pro?t oriented motives (OECD, 2009).
This collaboration is encouraged through governmental institutions, where culture and
tourismare included under the same organization. This cooperation also exists in the case of
the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, as well as its representative, the Istanbul Directorate for
Culture and Tourism. This partnership may also be observed through the structure of some
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recent non-governmental organizations, such as the Istanbul 2010 European Capital of
Culture Agency, which is organized under two main areas of activity; culture and tourism.
Thus, at the governance level, the synergy between culture and tourism is formally
recognized. In practice, however, these two areas of activity often compete with each other
within the organization for a more in?uential role and a greater number of resources.
Economic and physical development in Istanbul
Despite Istanbul’s former signi?cance as a focus of international trade, commerce and a
center of production and cultural life, the city underwent a period of stagnation after the
proclamation of Ankara as the capital in 1924, and did not regain importance until the 1980s,
when free market economy rules were implemented in Turkey. Thus the role of Istanbul in the
Turkish economy strengthened. The transformation of the cities from an industrial to a global
place, where the service sectors are dominant, has signi?cantly affected their development
by (Ergu¨ n and Du¨ ndar, 2004). This process has occurred in the case of Istanbul.
Considerable state funds were allocated to the Istanbul Municipality and large-scale
projects were launched to transform the city into a business and ?nancial center, to
encourage investments, to develop the private sector and to enhance the city’s image
throughout the 1980s (Keyder and O
¨
ncu¨ , 1993; Tokatli and Boyaci, 1999; Uzun, 2007). As
the city started to change, the spatiality of this transformation is observed in the skyline of
Istanbul along the highways in the newly developed regions. A new central business district
formed along the new highways has attracted a high concentration of headquarters of large
companies (Tokatli and Boyaci, 1999). Of?ce towers, trade centers, shopping malls and
luxury hotels are hallmarks that signify the integration of metropolises into global capitalism
(O
¨
ncu¨ and Weyland, 1997). Such developments are symbolized in Istanbul by skyscrapers,
malls, company headquarters, ?nancial institutions, all located in the new central business
district, as well as luxury hotels catering to the international clientele, the domestic elites and
the rich Istanbulites.
The role of Istanbul has also gained importance in the region owing to the development of
relationships with the Russian Federation and CIS countries. Istanbul has become a center
of the hinterland formed by the countries bordering the Balkans, Caucassia, Turkic
Republics, Middle East and the Black Sea (Berko¨ z and Eyu¨ boglu, 2007; Genis, 2004) as
evidenced by the increasing number of visitors from these countries. Moreover, the
geographical location of the city, together with its increasing signi?cance in the region are
moving Istanbul closer to the goal of becoming a regional hub in the Euro-Asian region as a
global gateway city, a regional provider of ?nancial services and a logistic center (OECD,
2008).
The economic boomand the rapid increase in the city’s population have also led to a number
of infrastructure investments including a metro line, a tramway and a funicular system. An
important factor in the location preferences of companies is the extent of the infrastructure
and urban renewal investments realized. One of the main triggering factors in increasing the
foreign visitor’s demand to Istanbul is the transport infrastructure works undertaken by the
Municipality. However, although signi?cant investments have been made to Istanbul’s
transportation system, the lack in the provision of information regarding the network to
visitors is a problem.
Istanbul has also become better connected internationally thanks to the expansion of the
new Atatu¨ rk International Airport and the opening of the Sabiha Gokc¸ en International Airport
on the Asian side of the city. As an increasingly large range of cultural activities and more
effective marketing campaigns have enhanced the image of Istanbul as a tourism
destination, the role of the low cost airlines has become crucial in directing European visitor
traf?c. The low cost airlines cater for frequent ?yers, weekend visitors and medium budget
cultural tourists and therefore they hold an important role in turning Istanbul into a
fashionable urban destination. Recently both the number of foreign low cost airlines and
privately owned Turkish airlines has increased, so that currently, the seat capacity of the
privately owned local companies exceeds that of the ?ag carrier Turkish Airlines.
Furthermore, most of the well-known European low cost airlines ?y to Istanbul, together with
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privately owned Turkish carriers. Their passengers mainly look for entertainment and culture
in Istanbul, and they also are above average in terms of income and high spending.
Therefore the impact of these airlines has been considerable, as they have brought a
substantial growth of the market through low prices and simpli?ed fare structures. Low
airfares encourage a different tourismproduct, such as city break holidays and weekend city
packages.
The economic development of cities stimulates high income that creates additional demand
for recreation, entertainment, culture, shopping, lodging and conference facilities (Ergu¨ n
and Du¨ ndar, 2004). In recent years shopping malls, recreation facilities, green areas,
restaurants, museums, art galleries and music halls have not only increased but they have
also become diversi?ed. These built spaces have increased the demand for leisure of the
Istanbulites and attracted new foreign visitors from nearby European countries, as Istanbul
is seen to be a ‘‘cool city’’. The internationalization of the city has also increased the demand
for luxury accommodation, apart-hotels and residences as well as new and modern of?ce
spaces. In this respect a synergy between tourism and business exists. The business needs
of corporate travelers and meeting participants are met extensively in Istanbul through the
stated facilities. On the other hand visitors to Istanbul may also extend their visits to bene?t
from the richness of culture and related amenities that are now available in the city.
Despite the economic development of Istanbul, the city is not currently contributing to the
global economy through the production of original products and services that are exported
to the world. Although the services industry has developed considerably, this sector has
done so through foreign companies, which have come to the city, bringing their views and
values as well as their expertise. Thus, at this stage of development, globalization works one
way, with Istanbul on the receiving end, rather than on the in?uencing side.
Conclusions
The developments in recent years from a cultural, as well as an economic perspective,
provide some indication that Istanbul is transforming into a world city. However, the degree
of change is in most cases externally induced, since the role of Istanbul in the world
economy is limited by the capacity of Turkey to produce internationally recognized products
and brands. Similarly, the contribution of Istanbul to world creativity and cultural production
is reduced. This situation is re?ected in the ranking of the city among other mega-cities of the
world, according to a study by Foreign Policy (2008). In this report, Istanbul is placed as
number 43 among 60 cities in terms of cultural and creative production, although the city is
ranked as eighth in relation to political in?uence and thirteenth in terms of human capital. The
relatively favorable position of the city in terms of human capital indicates that future
prospects may be more favorable.
One of the reasons for the low level of originality in the cultural production of Istanbul may be
the reduced demand for cultural products and therefore facilities. The inequalities in the
distribution of the income, and the often poor living conditions of the migrants, are the main
causes for a concentration of demand for culture in the hands of a few. Furthermore, this elite
also happens to be the sector of the population which is most Westernized. Thus the cultural
products that are produced for the consumption of this group are necessarily based on
Western values, in order to meet the expectations and preferences of this target market. As
the education level of the majority of the residents increase, so their appreciation and
demand for cultural products may grow, bringing other more diverse productions.
In this sense, the Istanbul municipality may play a signi?cant role in increasing the
production of cultural products for the middle classes. Since the 1980s, the municipality has
aimed to transform Istanbul into a world city. Signi?cant investments in infrastructure and
physical alteration of the city have been enormous. However, other than these material
transformations, no substantive change has been done from the standpoint of cultural
industries. Investments in cultural activities such as theatres, museums, musicals, have
been mainly left to private initiatives. These ventures have therefore been made from a
private sector point of view, and they have mainly catered to an elite. Nevertheless, this
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situation is slowly improving, as the municipality is starting to address the needs of the
residents from a non-physical perspective.
As Istanbul aims to become more creative and a world city, a signi?cant advantage is
brought by its history of multi-ethnicity and multiculturalism, which still endures today.
Istanbul boasts a tradition of acceptance of diversity, which is derived from its ancient
cosmopolitan character. As such, foreigners from surrounding countries have arrived to
Istanbul in recent years, creating communities that are currently tightly knit into the fabric of
the city. The challenge for the city is being able to focus and utilize the creative capabilities of
its diverse inhabitants to create narratives and cultural representations that in?uence culture
at a global level.
The capability of Istanbul to become a leading city of the world is increased by its
geographical position at the cross roads of Europe and Asia, and its situation in the Middle
East. Although the instability in the region has been a signi?cant threat for Turkey and
Istanbul, it has also presented an unforeseen opportunity. Successive con?icts and wars
have been detrimental to neighboring regions, causing their cities to become rundown, and
under developed. Thus, Istanbul has been left as the only city in the region of the Balkans,
Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East, with a signi?cant chance of becoming a world
city. One of the factors that is transforming Istanbul into a world city is its proximity to the
developed countries in Europe. Accordingly, in line with the center-periphery hypothesis of
the development theory, Istanbul is emerging as a world class city within the nearest
periphery of Europe. This has also led to an increased weight of Istanbul in the region,
making it a hub for logistics, ?nance and trade. Whether Istanbul can also become a global
cultural capital for the region is yet to be seen.
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About the authors
Maria D. Alvarez is an associate professor in the Department of Tourism Administration at
Bog? azic¸ i University. She holds a PhD in marketing from Bog? azic¸ i University (2003). She
carries out research in the area of tourist behavior, e-marketing and destination marketing.
Maria D. Alvarez is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: alvarezm@
boun.edu.tr
S¸ u¨ kru¨ Yarcan is a professor in the Department of Tourism Administration at Istanbul
University. He holds a PhD in economics from Istanbul University (1992). His research
interests are in the area of Turkish tourism, tourism in Istanbul and tour operators.
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