Description
This editorial aims to situate the papers chosen for this special issue within academic
literature and identify their contributions to new knowledge
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Island tourism: destinations: an editorial introduction to the special issue
J enny Cave Keith G. Brown
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J enny Cave Keith G. Brown, (2012),"Island tourism: destinations: an editorial introduction to the special issue", International J ournal of
Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 6 Iss 2 pp. 95 - 113
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Keith G. Brown, J enny Cave, (2010),"Island tourism: marketing culture and heritage – editorial introduction to the special issue",
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Island tourism: destinations: an editorial
introduction to the special issue
Jenny Cave and Keith G. Brown
Abstract
Purpose – This editorial aims to situate the papers chosen for this special issue within academic
literature and identify their contributions to new knowledge.
Design/methodology/approach – The editorial ?rst discusses tourism research literature pertinent to
the idiosyncrasies of destination management in island contexts. Second, the paper identi?es the
contributions made to this ?eld by the authors and the implications of their innovative research for island
tourism and destination management.
Findings – Each paper contributes, in its way, to the ?eld of island tourism, either by integration of
explorations of theory, shifting paradigms or revealing new knowledge. This special issue contains two
seminal papers by top academic leaders of the ?elds of islandness and HRM in island destinations. It
also presents papers that comment on destination management issues at macro and micro levels.
Originality/value – Collectively this collection of papers offers new perspectives concerning the
challenges of creating destination image in peripheral locations, the impacts of global mobilities (inward
and outward) on destination labor markets, models for sustainable destination development, the
welcome extended to visitors and returning locals by island communities, destination positioning
strategies and service interactions.
Keywords Island tourism, Destination image, Destination management, Sustainable development,
Service interactions, Human resource management, Tourism, Islands
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
This special issue – ‘‘Island tourism: destinations’’ complements an earlier issue (IJCTHR
Vol. 4, No. 2), ‘‘Island tourism: marketing culture and heritage’’. The ?rst special issue
explored the nature of island tourism, de?ned island cultural heritage product, analyzed the
mechanisms used for product marketing in those contexts and outlines the importance of a
proactive approach to product development that integrates industry, communities and
governments.
This issue takes a broader perspective, examining island tourism from the destination
management perspective. In so doing, it examines the literature surrounding the challenges
of creating islands as destinations, destination differentiation, and destination development
and management issues. The review serves to situate the papers of this special issue that
deal with destination image in peripheral locations, the impacts of mobilities (inward and
outward) on the destination labor markets, sustainable destination development, and the
welcome extended to visitors by island communities, destination positioning strategies and
service interactions.
The collection of papers in this publication produce an interdisciplinary view of the topic,
drawing on expertise from island and migration studies, the ?eld of human resource
management, marketing, community development and service management.
DOI 10.1108/17506181211233036 VOL. 6 NO. 2 2012, pp. 95-113, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182
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PAGE 95
Jenny Cave is a Senior
Lecturer in the Department
of Tourism and Hospitality
Management, University of
Waikato, Hamilton, New
Zealand. Keith G. Brown is
Vice President of the
External Department and
an Professor in the
Department of
Organizational
Management, Shannon
School of Business, Cape
Breton University, Sydney,
Canada.
Received: January 2010
Revised: May 2010
Accepted: July 2010
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Islands as destinations
The particular qualities of island as destinations was explored in the editorial for editorial for
‘‘Island tourism: marketing culture and heritage’’ (Brown and Cave, 2010). Islands are
attractive as tourism destinations because of their sense of distance, geographic ?niteness,
cultural and environmental insularity, regardless of their remoteness from centers of
population, access routes or larger economies. These factors offer a physical and
psychological degree of separation from the mainland or source region that has appeal for
the utopian imaginations of local and returning residents, lifestyle newcomers, seasonal
second homeowners or habitual long-stay visitors and short-stay tourists. Hall (2010) notes
that, attracted by the exoticism, exclusivity and unique natural and cultural features of island
destinations, the tourist numbers often far exceed the permanent population. These
characteristics also mean that islands are attractive to researchers as places for ?eld study
and assumed microcosmic examples of larger scale tourism destinations (Burns, 1993;
Essex et al., 2004).
Island environments experience the effects of tourism perhaps more severely than other
destinations where development can be spread or mitigated. Concentration of resorts on the
coastal zone, distance from centers of governance, regulatory mechanisms, infrastructure
planning and application of marketing tools (Mycoo, 2006) can lead to situations where
environmental and social degradation occurs.
The economic base of islands however, can be weak, since many are occupied by
traditional societies (Kokkranikal et al., 2003) engaged in marine and other primary
industries, experience high logistical costs and dependent upon the mainland or for the
provision of basic services (food, fuel, jobs). This can mean tourism has a mixed reception in
peripheral island communities, ranging from a threat to traditional life and local culture and
an economic development opportunity (Nilsson, 2008). Its success then depends upon
authenticity of local cultures, social cohesion, population demographics, and the strength of
the local economy, whether informal as in small island developing states or larger islands of
the developed world, fully engaged in the market economy (Cave, 2009b).
Whilst many islands are isolated, peripheral destinations, others are not, and are close to
large, urbanized centers of population or located on transportation hubs, as noted in the ?rst
special issue. Economic growth in peripherally located islands links closely to the cultivation
of new markets for primary products and to networks connecting peripheral regions to ?ows
of investment capital and tourists (Conradson and Pawson, 2009; Hampton and
Christensen, 2007). These can be leveraged to create differentiation between
destinations, thus marginality can be a source of competitive edge, especially where
diasporan social worlds are leveraged for product creation, ?nancial assistance, capital
investment in destination projects and expertise gained offshore (Cave, 2009b).
Destination differentiation
In terms of the wider literature, the exigencies of the market economy mean that competitive
differentiation, niche positioning and unique selling propositions are foundational to the
tourism industry in a capitalist system. Blumberg (2005) argues that destination marketing is
an essential tool for the strategic management of destinations.
Brand research connects destination differentiation to visitor choice processes and brand
personality. Murphy et al. (2007) link the emotive components of destination brand to
characteristics of tourist self-image for the Australian Whitsunday Islands. A similar ?nding of
self-congruity and destination choice emerges in research in the Canary Islands (Beerli et al.,
2007). The identi?cation of destination attributes is seen as ways to distinguish locations and
develop competitive strategies, as for example in the analysis of the attribute draw for
Japanese tourists to the island of Hawaii (Turner et al., 2000).
Island destination image is enhanced, or reduced by the actual visit experience (Machado
et al., 2009). Research in Barry Island, Wales, indicates that place image is organic, not
static, and that images progress fromna? ¨ve to reevaluated states, factors that can be used in
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newtourismdestination strategies as well as management policy (Selby and Morgan, 1998).
Motivation to visit and accumulated touristic experiences are additive features, as found in a
Canary Island context (Beerli and Martin, 2004a). Motivations interact with affective portions
of destination image, the nature of experiences and socio-demographics are linked to both
affective and cognitive dimensions (Beerli and Martin, 2004b). Visits to the Canadian Queen
Charlotte Islands for ?rst-time visitors were found to shift perceptions of destination image,
positively, in the main, from pre-visit cognitive perceptions of the natural and cultural
environment, to affective emotional responses (MacKay and McVetty, 2002).
Investment in promotion and image creation is very important for repeat visitation and
economic sustainability of island destinations. The information sources which played the
largest part on creating pre-visit image were actually sources outside the control of
destination marketers, such as coffee table books and media reportage (MacKay and
McVetty, 2002). ‘‘Coopetition’’, or networking amongst competitors using e-commerce, can
be a cost-effective way to leverage budgets for the small and medium enterprises that make
up the bulk of the tourism, hospitality, transportation and travel sector, demonstrated as an
effective practice on the island of Elba (Pechlaner et al., 2003).
Other factors affecting destination image, differentiation and management of visitation
patterns are exogenous shocks, risk and crises such as earthquakes, tsunamis, collapse of
?nancial markets, wars, local diseases and global pandemics. Such factors act as
deterrents for the locales in which they occur, but have the effect of increasing visitation in
perceived safe destinations (Dwyer and Sheldon, 2006).
Differences accord to mature and to emerging destinations. Carter (2004) argues that as
tourist destinations approach senescence, that the cultural or natural assets resources upon
which the product is based can be destroyed in the process of expanding, rebuilding or
repositioning the product. Examples of mature destinations are the Baltic islands close to
Scandinavia, Caribbean Islands such as Barbados (Ibrahim and Gill, 2005), Singapore and
several islands in the Mediterranean. Perception and satisfaction studies are frequently
used as a means to develop potential niche and destination positioning strategies (Ibrahim
and Gill, 2005) to reposition the island of Barbados.
The maturity of Baltic Islands relates to high dependency on local markets, overcrowding at
peak times and under-utilization in the lowseason due to access restrictions and seasonality.
Solutions proposed in such circumstances are advertising campaigns to improve the
islands’ image, better training of local tourism industry staff and implementation of a regular
program of market research (Twining-Ward and Baum, 1998). Singapore has reinvented
itself as a conventions destination through careful destination positioning, marketing, and
development (MacLaurin and Litvin, 2001). Whereas in the Mediterranean, Cyprus has
chosen to emphasize values of quality and sustainability, cultural and social heritage in their
destination renewal campaigns (Soteriades et al., 2007). In contrast, Tenerife on the Spanish
Canary islands (Rodr? ´guez Barroso, 2007) and Ios in Greece (Stylidis et al., 2008) have
chosen to differentiate themselves on the basis of leisure and entertainment. The addition of
new product, such as wine tourism in the Canary Islands, is also a way to create a distinction
between destinations as well as to expand the image of the destination to attract new
markets (Scherrer et al., 2009).
Tourism is however, one industry where supply can create demand, especially if the product
is imaginative and exceptionally high quality (Cave et al., 2003), thus new destinations can
emerge. An example being the Isle of Mull where the location of ?lming a very popular
pre-school children’s program can result in spatial concentration of visits on particular
venues and produce new tourism product at the expense of existing tourism ventures and
place pressure on accommodation and infrastructure (Connell, 2005). In emerging island
destinations, the transport interface (Ismail et al., 2000) and local transport infrastructure are
important elements of destination development and sustainability.
Action to redress such issues can also become a tool for destination differentiation, an idea
supported by comparisons of islands with different environmental characteristics, markets
and infrastructure in the Caribbean (Uyarra et al., 2005) and Croatia. Visitors at the popular
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tourist island of Korc? ula, off the coast of Croatia indicate that intention to return, and actual
visitation, link strongly to the environmental attributes of the island’s extensive forests.
Furthermore, tourists are willing to pay an accommodation levy if destined for forest
preservation and regeneration (Vuletic´ et al., 2006).
Renewable, restorable energy sources such as solar energy and wind power can be
leveraged to produce competitive improvement for a tourist destination (Gracan et al.,
2008). Eco-labeling is a way to benchmark the actions, quality and experience of island
destinations (Cetinski and Juric? ic, 2005). Positive references in marketing materials that
echo scenic, unspoiled destination attributes such as inaccessibility and harsh physical
conditions are also noted in the case of the Jeonnam Islands, Korea by Shin (2008) as
enhancements to island destination image.
Destination promotion can be a strategic approach to developing the economic base of an
island, such as Crete. These should be planned, in-depth understanding of tourist
behaviors, assessment of the environmental conditions, awareness of competitive contexts,
contemporary and changing marketing technologies and with the product seen holistically,
as several combinations of a diverse range of products, services and experiences
(Soteriades et al., 2007).
Destination development
The island tourism literature possesses many examples destination development models
which, while they cluster around achieving environmental or social outcomes, are
underpinned by an awareness that tourism deals with ?nite, rather than in?nitely
renewable markets and resources, leading to the need for sustainable approaches in the
management of island destinations (Dodds, 2007). Some examples of this range include
modi?ed versions of the ‘‘Tourismarea life cycle in the Isle of Man and Tenerife’’ (Cooper and
Jackson, 1989; Ioannides, 2008; Oreja Rodriguez et al., 2008), the ‘‘Butler realms of
experience’’ (Ioannides, 2008; Ioannides et al., 2001), environmental audit (Diamantis and
Westlake, 1997) on the ‘‘Greek island of Mytilini, destination knowledge mapping in Korea’’
(Pyo, 2005; Pyo et al., 2002). Others include, the tourism consumption system (Woodside
and Dubelaar, 2002), integrated technical-economic modeling (Xu et al., 2003) and systems
approaches that encompasses multiple social, economic, cultural and environmental
dimensions (Carlsen, 1999; Northcote and Macbeth, 2006).
Yet in reality, the idealized model rarely plays out as described at the destination level,
varying in speed of takeoff, long-run growth, early overshoot and decline, as well, as
stepped and cyclical growth for the Butler Life cycle model. Carrying capacity and global
competition are critical elements of the destination development picture (Cole, 2007), as are
water supply (Essex et al., 2004; Xu et al., 2003) and sanitation infrastructure. Political
instability too is a deterrent to tourism destination development, as shown in the Maldives
(Henderson, 2008).
In addition, the growth of tourism product and markets is sporadic rather than occurring in a
sustained manner, producing a challenge for long-term destination development and
management strategies (Carter, 2004). It is also important to note that stakeholder concerns
are not static, shifting over time and at times are contradictory – changing as a destination
develops (Ioannides, 2008). As a consequence, destination development requires mutual
adjustment between stakeholders, rather than an outcome-based approach (Carter, 2004).
Local community empowerment and stakeholder perceptions are growing theme in
destination development literature as evidenced by the case of Bali (Picard, 2003), Crete
(Briassoulis, 2003), and Korea (Ko and Stewart, 2002). Especially since research shows that
those who are economically dependent on tourism have more positive attitudes towards the
industry than those who were not and the distribution of wealth generated through foreign
tourist accessing local resources is inequitable (Ponting et al., 2005). Tourism has differing
degrees of importance for residents, investors and tourists (Laws, 1991), especially where
endogenous tourism investment takes place. The early development phases often focus
consultation efforts on the business and community sectors that may bene?t directly from
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tourism and not on a wide scan of community interest, creating differential participation
levels. Often exacerbated by local government concerns about protection and conservation
of natural and sociocultural resources, for which the Greek island of Zakynthos provides a
case in point (Apostolopoulos and So¨ nmez, 1999). King et al. (2000) recommend that
destination development should be considered as a framework within which to place
community aspirations and destination marketing concerns, as in the Paci?c Island of Niue.
Lim and Cooper (2009) suggest optimization of tourism status indicators, within a
multifunctional interactive process cycle both visitors and local community concerns as a
ways to overcome many of the current challenges.
Nonetheless, a review of 36 islands, using the tourism penetration index suggests that the
most developed islands for tourism are in the Caribbean, but the least developed are Paci?c
and Indian Ocean islands (McElroy, 2006; McElroy and Albuquerque, 1996). Yet a
successful example for sustainable destination development comes from Newport, Rhode
Island where civic groups have combined their respective efforts to produce an integrated,
cooperative tourism product (Evans, 1997). A hot springs destination, Kurokawa Onsen, on
the island of Kyushu, Japan has taken advantage of the nation’s nostalgia for a pastoral
utopian past to reinvent itself, creating a resort rooted in heritage values that incorporates
elements of an idealized rural village that has become a highly successful business
proposition (McMorran, 2008). Aruba is one of the most successful small island destinations
in terms of tourismnumbers and return on investment because of its use of international hotel
chains and targeted marketing to short-stay package tourists. However the reliance on
external providers and a single market may present an inherent vulnerability (Croes, 2008).
Managing island destinations
The sustainable management of islands as tourism destinations varies according to global
position, proximity to large populations or location on airline and sea routes. All islands are
subject to the effects of seasonality, global population ?ows, and transport infrastructure
investments/scheduling (Me´ re´ o, 1993) and other factors. But geographic limitations and
seasonality make destination development and the effects and rapidity of change all the
more intense for island destinations (Oreja Rodriguez et al., 2008). And, the challenges are
somewhat different at cold water (Nilsson, 2008) and warmwater island (Baldacchino, 2006)
destinations.
Islands settings are ideal backdrops for assessing the management issues of stakeholders,
such as the competing demands of holiday and recreation pursuits versus preservation of
natural and cultural values, or the dilemmas of economic versus social and environmental
sustainability, as on Rottenest Island (Jackson, 2008) and Fraser Island, Australia (Fleming
and Cook, 2008). Bardolet and Sheldon (2008) identify that the particular characteristics of
archipelagoes such as Hawaii (USA) and the Balearic Islands in Spain produce challenges
of destination management, development and marketing that are wider in scope than those
of politically discrete islands.
Environmental degradation is a particularly important management issue for island contexts.
The hotel industry in particular has a heavy impact on the environment of Jamaica from its
high use of fresh water and limited absorption of waste products (Thomas-Hope and
Jardine-Comrie, 2007). In many cases the issue arises because of unplanned and
unrestrained growth on islands distant from governance structures (Cameron and
Gatewood, 2008) and limitations of scale (Essex et al., 2004). Another case is Tahiti and
Moorea where coral reefs are similarly endangered (Salvat and Aubanel, 2002) and in
southern Bali where mass tourism has produced extreme conditions, affecting culture and
environments (Vorlaufer, 1999). Such effects translate into the effects of energy production,
pollution, water shortages and quality, deforestation due to development and many more,
but in the wider context of carbon emissions, climate change and global warming.
Climate change impacts are anticipated in Mediterranean island destinations (Amelung and
Viner, 2006) in many small island states in the Paci?c and around the world (Bedford and
Hugo, 2008). Several policy areas are essential for an island’s capacity to manage
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adaptations to changing climatic conditions. These are: control systems for implementation
and monitoring, education regarding the impacts and processes of climate change, need for
a broad tourism policy framework, economic incentives, participatory approaches and
identifying policy gaps within the wider framework. Indeed some small islands may ?nd that
tourismis not a sustainable option because of the long-termeffects of environmental change
(Dodds and Kelman, 2008).
Shifts in political structure and economic stability also play a major part in the management
of tourism destinations. For example in Cuba where the socialist economy produces supply
shortages, a black market, prostitution, resident apartheid and poor telecommunication
infrastructure and shortfalls in human resource practices such as lack of employee
incentives, poor service delivery (Elliott and Neirotti, 2008) that have consequences for the
nature of the services industries and thus, tourism. However, infrastructure expansion and
the promotion of Cuban history and ecotourism play major roles in retaining international
operators in the Cuban tourism scene, as well as developing the local industry (Cervino and
Cubillo, 2005).
Giannoni and Maupertuis (2007) note that the success of tourism at island destinations in
fact relies upon the integrated management of environmental quality, lodging infrastructures
and services in ways that that contribute to the overall experience. In The Netherlands, an
island community’s strategy of placing high value on the island’s environment has enabled
protectionist regulation and emphasis on development of sustainable innovations that
maintain and market its environmental quality as a source of competitive advantage (Krozer
and Christensen-Redzepovic, 2006). An idea supported in the Caribbean by research which
compared islands with different environmental characteristics, markets and infrastructure
(Uyarra et al., 2005). Another example comes from Croatia where tourist intention to return
and actual visitation link strongly to environmental attributes, leading to leveraging of
renewable, restorable energy sources such as solar energy and wind power for competitive
advantage (Gracan et al., 2008).
Where tourism is dependent on wildlife as the attractor, sustainable management addresses
both human-wildlife interactions and stakeholder interests. The case of Fraser Island’s
dingoes (Burns and Howard, 2003) and Penguin Island near Perth (Wienecke et al., 1995)
provides excellent case studies. As a destination, the Arctowski Station on King George
Island in Antarctica balances the needs of the fragile polar ecosystem with increasing cruise
ship visitors, but also integrates a program of longitudinal research into understanding the
dynamics (Ciaputa and Salwicka, 1997; Stonehouse, 1999).
Sustainability is dif?cult to achieve in island environments in the third world such as the
Lakshadweep archipelago, off the coast of India, occupied by a traditional society, in an
environmentally fragile context, dependant on the mainland for basic services but
nonetheless approaches tourism as a means of redress to alleviate poverty (Kokkranikal
et al., 2003). In the Indo-Paci?c island surf tourism destinations, the lack of governance or
infrastructure means that although the destinations are attractive to tourists (cheap and
accessed without capacity management incentives or controls) over time they suffer
crowding, crime, pollution and price collapse, risks to drinking water and subsistence
?sheries and impacts on cultures. In Madagascar, poor infrastructure, dif?cult access, the
hurricane season and political instability are noted as offsetting perceived bene?ts to local
residents (such as ecotourism revenues) (Ormsby and Mannle, 2006).
Research into the issues of destination management on the island of Mauritius indicates that
while access to an island is important, local infrastructure is however critical to destination
attractiveness (Boopen, 2006). Further, tourist arrivals from Europe, America and Asia are
particularly sensitive to transportation infrastructure on the island. And, that American and
European markets visitors are also sensitive to non-transportation infrastructure at a
destination (Khadaroo and Seetanah, 2007).
In the Caribbean micro-state of Antigua-Barbuda, tourism was judged unsustainable after
30 years of uncontrolled free-market growth, resulting in large-scale infrastructure and
foreign ?nanced, hotel-marina resorts producing loss of wetlands, endemic species and
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pre-historic settlements, illegal sand mining, beach erosion and in-shore pollution. However,
integrated campaigns to alter public opinion, community protests, NGO, private sector and
governmental forces can alter this position (McElroy and Albuquerque, 1997). And, Nilsson
(2008) suggests that a tacit or actual written contract between tourists and local residents
are necessary to bridge gaps in resident and tourist perceptions of the activity in peripheral
destinations.
The conundrum continues to be, how can developing nations earn enough income from
tourism to put infrastructure and capacity management controls in place, without irreparably
damaging the cultural and natural environments and indeed lack of development which are
the draw to those locations (Buckley, 2002a, b). An alternate view comes from Pulau Ubin,
Singapore where governmental agencies and the private are tackling the issues proactively,
yet experiencing the management challenges of retaining the qualities which make the
island a unique natural and cultural attraction but provide for growing pressures for
urbanization (Henderson, 2008). Local government involvement in tourismdevelopment can
be a powerful force in ensuring the sustainability, as in the case of Dauin in the Philippines
where the actions of a town mayor has developed laws to ensure that its coral reefs can be
preserved, sustaining dive tourism to inject foreign funds into the economy for local
suppliers and yet provide food security for the local population (Oracion, 2007). The
Caribbean Turks and Cacaos Islands are attempting to learn from their neighbors (Jamaica,
Bahamas and Barbados) about how to develop island image and range of products based
upon its maritime attractions, history, nature and culture, yet attract long term tourism
investment, based on upscale niche markets (Cameron and Gatewood, 2008).
The Island of Malta, manages its destination product to spread its tourism product and
promotion across several forms and across all seasons, so that returns from tourism are
maximized (Chircop, 2006) for the industry, the island’s activity and accommodation
capacity, employment and pressure on infrastructure and access.
Seasonality is a key element of island destination management, not only determined by
climatic factors but also level of service (star category), opening periods during the year,
school holidays and periodicity of special events (Capo Parrilla et al., 2007). This has a major
effect on residents and as well the nature of labor markets, both of which are also affected by
inward and outward migration – produced by ?ows of, economic and social migration
(Portes and Sensenbrenner, 1993), climate change (Belle and Bramwell, 2005),
post-colonial outmigration (Blunt, 2007) and neo-liberalist restructuring of urban areas
(Sheller, 2009), amongst other factors.
Congested resort islands, located at junctions of large volumes of travelers and close to
large population centers such as Hawaii, experience problems other than seasonal
employment issues. Rather, the high incidence of second homes produces a year-round
housing shortage, distorted by the recreational second-homes that impact on the livability of
resorts and economic sustainability outside seasonal occupation (Goodno, 2004). In fact,
the quality of accommodation is rarely integrated into analysis of destination attractiveness,
development and planning (Sharpley, 2000). Indeed Croes (2008) con?rms that
accommodation portfolio of a destination is an important tool for market differentiation.
In the island of Tenerife, it was found that social worlds and patterns of return are in?uenced
by information obtained fromprevious visits and/or relatives and friends increases the length
of stay (Ledesma et al., 2005). Adams (2004) argues that touristic imagery emerges fromthe
ideas and fantasies of both insiders and outsiders, becoming readily embedded in the local
politics and power dynamics, identity and actions even on a remote Indonesian Island where
tourism is barely known. An Alaskan, Kodiak Island study of the shifts in livelihood from
commercial ?shing to tourism and the impacts on heritage and other community assets, and
attitudes toward tourism development for residents and businesses, show that hosts
supported heritage preservation above conservation and exploitation of natural resources
(Vogt et al., 2004). Easterling identi?es equity, economic, and in?uence as the issues that
in?uence the attitudes of full-time and part-time residents of Chincoteague Island, Virginia,
USA to tourists (Easterling, 2005). Yet visit experiences on remote Paci?c resort islands were
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found to differ on the basis of beach crowdedness, helpfulness of employees, water
potability and whether language was a barrier (Cottrell et al., 1999). From another
perspective, in the island of Fiji, now independent of colonial rule, tourists and recent
non-indigenous residents impose their own cultural and heritage values on the host
community, creating a neo-colonialist view of the tourism product with consequences for the
local industry and destination marketing (Fisher, 2004). Thus a pervading theme is the
qualitative difference between human interactions in terms of casual, non-monetary
(encounters) and transactions (monetary) between island residents, the tourism industry
and visitors, as was con?rmed by Cave (2009a).
Managing stakeholder interactions
At island destinations, the seasonality of vitiation, employment and the enclave nature of
island resorts have consequences for the success or failure of service equality, visit
experiences. Islands are contested spaces, often contrasted to ‘‘other’’ places such as
‘‘mainland’’ and described relationally by contrasts of physicality (tropical versus coldwater
ice-bound islands of both hemispheres, inhabited by aboriginal people versus dominated
by colonial peoples, small versus large, uninhabited versus populous, resource-rich versus
resource-poor) or of identity such as paradise or prison, victim or resourceful in the face of
threats, internal or external (Hay, 2006), vulnerable or examples of community resilience
(Briguglio et al., 2006). They are evocative of welcome and inclusive communality
(Novaczek and Ronstrom, 2007) and enmeshed sociability (Massey, 1999) but at the same
time as places of isolation (Cliff, 1989) and sites of real and perceptual imprisonment and
exile (Bongie, 1998). Turvey (2001) relates ‘‘Islandness’’ to traditional island living and island
lifestyles, amongst other characteristics such as cultural identity/heritage, indigenous
peoples, traditional cultures and customs. Thus, human interactions are an important issue.
Islands are as much living, complex and ?uid, shifting, complex and liminal inter-island
spaces and networks (Dodds and Royle, 2003; Hay, 2006; Kuwhara et al., 2007) as they are
observable and capable of being de?ned (Selwelyn, 1980; Terrell, 1999). The concept of
‘‘Islandness’’ as linkage (with the mainland or with the wider external world of sea and land is
explored by (Brophy, 2004) and (Baldacchino, 2004, 2007) in the modern day. But this
pattern is well recognized in prehistory, expressed in iconographic and monumental
structures to unify the living and the dead, the islands, the sea and mainland (Frieman, 2008)
as well as by rituals and long traditions of travel between locales (Robb, 2001).
The movements of peoples by migration create diasporan social worlds that possess
inherent confusions, linkages and transformations. Aase (1994) illustrates how these create
culturally constructed links between space, migration patterns and form nation states. Soon
after migration, modi?cations that take place to ‘‘Islandness’’ soon after migration (Kamali,
2008) yet over successive generations Islandness can become simultaneously diluted and
reinvented, in some cases melded with elements of the host or community (Anae, 2002) or
dominant subculture (Fitzgerald, 1998) which produce paradoxes of identity and alienation
(Fog Olwig, 2001) in the new location, and similar tensions in the homeland on return
voyages (King and Connell, 1999) that translate into contested host-guest and guest-local
relations. Research into host-guest relationships at island destinations is not extensive, and
relatively little into guest-local relationships.
The experiential qualities of boutique accommodation on the South Island of New Zealand
(McIntosh and Siggs, 2005) is essential to tourism transactions. Working holidays in
Dominica, although informal and non-monetary, carry sets of obligations that belong to
host-guest relationships into local-guest tourist interactions (Heuman, 2005). In indigenous
tourism product, such as during a marae (tribal meeting place) visit in New Zealand, the
rules of cultural custom and practice apply to host-guest relationships (McIntosh and
Johnson, 2004). On the islands of Flores in Eastern Indonesia (Erb, 2000) foreigners are
welcomed as special guests who have a particular role within an adapted traditional cultural
framework. Yet in the Cook Islands, this welcome is complicated by transactions in which
cash changes hands, changing the service expectations that accompany the relationship
(Berno, 1999). Duval suggests that niche alternatives to mass tourism are particularly
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effective in producing more positive interactions between hosts and guests in the context of
the Caribbean island of St Vincent (Duval, 1998).
Guest-local issues researched in island destinations include the incidence of crime (De
Albuquerque and McElroy, 1999), sexual harassment of tourists on Barbados where female
tourists are more likely to be harassed by vendors and males by peddlers (De Albuquerque
and McElroy, 2001), as well as incidences of drug peddling. Yet repeat visitors were less
likely than ?rst or younger visitors to report abuse.
Trans-nationalism produces heterotopic perspectives, where encounters with difference are
glocal inevitabilities. On Magarita Island, Venezuela, internal migration and the return of
male residents who had left the island to seek work elsewhere, accompanies a shift from a
rural to an urban economy caused by the establishment of a duty-free shopping port (Monk
and Alexander, 1986). Yet, even in this context, those who were once hosts become guests
on return visits to islands of origin, such as in the Eastern Caribbean, producing negotiated
identities (Duval, 2003).
Out-migration on Niue has produced attitudes amongst local residents of acceptance of
mobility, ?uidity of social worlds and coexistent hope and despair (Connell, 2008) for the
continuance of traditions that are becoming, of necessity, glocally enacted. But in newlands,
the viability of tourism attractions as redress for social and economic marginality are
explored for Paci?c Island migrant communities by Cave (2009b) and Cave et al. (2007).
Stakeholder perception analysis conducted in island destinations appears in the literature in
more than 30 cases, especially in the context of tourism as a developmental tool to redress
social or economic marginality. A sample of which includes work in the United States Virgin
Islands regarding the relationship between agriculture and the tourism and hospitality
industry (Mwaijande et al., 2009), and bio-climatological education of the tourist industry in
Hvar, Croatia (Zaninovic and Matzarakis, 2009). Community participation in planning and
decision-making (Marzuki, 2008) in the Langkawi Islands, Malaysia, and the reaction of
stakeholders to cultural product and authenticity (Wall and Xie, 2005) also appear. Further,
the interface between traditional marine industries and tourism product on Alonissos Island,
Greece (Oikonomou and Dikou, 2008), the Galapagos Islands (Baine et al., 2007) and many
more.
However, two areas not canvassed extensively are human resource management and
guest-staff relationships at island destinations and resident’s attitudes to long-term migrants
from other countries. This special issue discusses all three and contributes to the literature
by highlighting new issues, drawing together new multi-disciplinary perspectives and
presenting the work of innovators in the ?eld.
Papers in this special issue
The range of papers encompassed in this volume challenge established ways of viewing
and de?ning destinations. They are ordered to present an off-shore perspective on island
destinations, then to examine on-shore interactions of the tourism and hospitality industry in
terms of planning for sustainable destinations, community relationships, and service
interface dynamics.
For instance, the ?rst paper in this volume examines the parameters of destination image for
northern, peripheral destinations and the dynamics of destination marketing (Magnusson
and Gudlaugsson). Next, the interface of global mobilities, local island labor market and the
tourism service culture at the regional and product as destination level by Baum. This paper
also draws implications for service interactions.
On-shore, destination development is investigated in terms of theorizing, mapping and
testing potential outcomes, causes and effects of tourism in the paper by Nicely and
Palakurthi. Baldacchino’s paper, interrogates the notion of a welcoming society for particular
segments of society where perceptions of immigrants, returning locals and tourists differ
and accorded different treatments. Hennessey, Yun and Macdonald illustrate that
destination marketing techniques, speci?cally activity-based segmentation, are ?uid and
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link strongly to other destination attributes, such as accommodation. The ?nal paper by
Prayag and Ryan show that service encounters at an island destination relate to destination
image, emotional labor and cross-cultural perceptions, based on nationality.
The next section outlines the contributions to theory, new knowledge and implications for
tourism and hospitality industry made by each of the articles featured in this volume.
T. Gudlaugsson and G. Magnusson
This paper examines the question of destination image for a peripheral island destination,
Iceland, but in the context of contemporary global mobility and whether competitive
advantage, effectively leveraged by clustered destination marketing strategies, as opposed
to the promotion of individual destinations. This well structured research undertakes
cognitive and perceptual mapping of several peripheral destinations located in the far
northern hemisphere, using affective, cognitive and conative attributes to identify
commonalities and distinctive features. Destination images identi?ed and compared
include Iceland, Faroe Islands, Finland, Greenland, Norway and Scotland. Destination
image and positioning theory, as well as ‘‘co-opetition’’ theory situates this work.
The research found that Iceland, the Faroe Islands and Greenland have many similar
attributes in terms of destination image, and these might form the basis of a common,
‘‘co-opetive’’ positioning strategy. The unique contribution made by this paper is that it
demonstrates the effectiveness of perceptual mapping as a viable tool with which to
compare several destinations. Further, the paper con?rms destination image in island
locations as critical to destination marketing, but for in peripheral island destinations it is
more important to cooperate rather than compete in their marketing efforts.
T. Baum
In this seminal paper, Professor Baum reviews 15 years of research into human resource
management dimension of the tourism workplace in the context of small island destinations,
characterized by micro to small tourism industries, immature destinations and economies,
largely dependent on primary industries, in the context of seasonality and global mobilities.
The paper crystallizes theoretical and practical issues of the labor market on small island
economies that can include limited availability of local skills, few educational opportunities,
inward and outward social and economic mobility. These produce dif?culties in sourcing and
recruiting staff, employee retention, trainee development and career progression as well as
dependency on external labor, translating into the new phenomenon of lifestyle employees.
The research analyzes the issue of interactions between host-guest-employees and cultural
dissonance between the tourism industry priorities for service and skills of traditional island
societies, noting engagement in marine or agricultural industries. The author locates the
discussion in role, labor aesthetics and labor market theory.
The uniqueness of this paper lies in its research scope and synthesis of many years of
research in HRM in island contexts, and the conclusion that location and scope are
determinants of structural and cultural HRM issues in the tourism sector. Further, the author
reveals systemic contradictions in HRM practices that have repercussions in the operational
domain of tourism, and upon ?nancial effectiveness, marketing, user satisfaction as well as
the overall sustainability of the sector and service quality.
For example, contradictions are apparent in the sectors’ strategic emphases on service
culture, empowerment and engagement of high quality staff yet its tolerance of ambiguous
operational attitudes and HRM practices that permit ad hoc monitoring, highly ?exible
employment, little investment in human capital and a new emphasis on technology
substitution that reduces or eliminates staff.
Further, the paper highlights impacts that these factors have on operational human resource
management (HRM). The issues of small island destinations mirror those of larger,
metropolitan destinations but have critical structural and cultural consequences in smaller
locales and, also, paradoxically, in luxury products where differentiation from competitors is
essential.
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A. Nicely and R. Palakurthi
Nicely and Palakurthi take a community perspective on this issue of destination planning and
development. First, they develop a model from literature in Sustainable Tourism for the
Elimination of Poverty (STEP) that identi?es causal relationships between several types of
tourismand their effects, and factors that in?uence tourismsuccess. The types identi?ed are
domestic, cruise, mass, rural, casino, cultural and diasporan tourism. The factors in?uencing
tourism success are visitor capacity, average daily spend, and economic leakages.
The model postulates several scenarios that can become a guide for communities to
consider various options and outcomes as well as to think about potential strategies to
mitigate negative effects. The paper reports on tests undertaken by the author of the veracity
of the model, triangulating the model with primary data from a sample of tourism industry
leaders and secondary data from newspaper accounts, government documents and
research literature. The paper applies this model to the community of St Thomas, on the
island of Jamaica.
The unique contribution made by this paper is its comprehensive, validated modeling of the
dynamics of tourism’s effects on destinations and the potential that this model has for
assisting island communities to consider the bene?ts and costs of the tourism industry for
geographically isolated, host communities. The model has the potential to guide and
empower local decision-making.
G. Baldacchino
Professor Baldacchino, Tier 2 Canada Research Chair of the Island Studies Centre for
Research Excellence, uses an Island Studies and migration lens to demonstrate the
contradictions of an apparent ‘‘welcoming culture’’ but the reality of limits to host hospitality
on Prince Edward Island, Canada.
The qualitative paper contrasts attitudinal differences to short stay visitors and long-stay
immigrants, the de?nitional ‘‘messiness’’ of who is an ‘‘islander’’, the effects of
trans-nationalism as well as issues of identity and behavioral differences at an on-shore
destination level. Categories of tourist identi?ed in the paper include former islanders (who
can behave as tourists), short-stay tourists, and long-stay immigrants who may remain
inde?nitely but who are treated as outsiders by local residents.
In terms of theory, the paper highlights notions of social and bridging capital that are
important to consider as solutions to the effects of otherness and cultural distance. It also
considers the characteristics of insider-outsider interactions and the consequences that
such dynamics have for service delivery, quality and visitor likelihood to return.
The unique contribution made by this paper is that it identi?es tourism/travel markets that
have hitherto been noted but not described, and contrasts host-guest dynamics which may
be peculiar to island and peripheral destinations, but which nonetheless present
management challenges for the industry.
S. Hennessey, D. Yun and R. Macdonald
This quantitative paper offers an activity-based market segmentation approach to the
analysis of ?rst time visitors to the destination of Prince Edward Island, Canada. The work
proposes a range of destination management strategies based upon an activity continuum
that progress from culture to nature to casual tourism activities. The unique contribution of
this paper is that the activity continuum correlates with accommodation provision,
restaurants and to shopping preferences at the destination management level and marketed
as integrated packages to ?rst time visitors.
Hennessey, Yun and Macdonald research the activities of ?rst time visitors to Prince Edward
Island with a view to challenging the current spend on destination marketing and for future
product positioning strategies for the destination marketing in this mature tourism
destination, in terms of sustainability, pro?tability and growth across the sector.
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The ?ndings identify relationships between travel activities and produce activity-based
segmentation of these visitors, linked to demographics, socio-economic variable and
trip-related destination characteristics. Speci?cally, the current destination marketing
campaign does not address almost two-thirds of the visitors. Three distinct segments exist –
culture-oriented, active and casual. Further, they con?rm work done by other researchers,
such as, that these segments overlap to some extent and that the range of activities pursued
are dependent upon place of origin. Thus, active visitors are more likely to be from distant
parts of Canada and casuals reside in adjacent provinces or are internationals, whereas
culture seekers are from US or non-Maritime Canada. The highest spenders are
culture-oriented visitors.
The unique contribution made by this paper is the clear conclusion that while distinct based
on the majority of time spent, these categories are not exclusive and that they represent
continuum of activity clusters, linked to accommodation, food and beverage and travel
preferences. Such ?ndings have implications for preparing and leveraging destination
marketing campaigns for management of mature destinations.
G. Prayag and C. Ryan
The Prayag and Ryan paper studies the emotional connections implicit in guest-employee
relationships in luxury hotels on the island destination of Mauritius, basing the work in social
interaction, role and script theory situating guest interpretations of the service encounter in
cultural norms and values.
Using a phenomenological methodology, veri?ed by neural network analysis, they ?nd that
differences explicable by nationality, ethnicity and languages spoken during the service
encounter in?uence ratings given by various nationalities more than actual satisfaction.
Further, they identify several values that characterize the nature of interactions that guests
expect in a service encounter, such as integrity and respect, authentically displayed
emotions, a way to learn about the destination and safeness of destination activities. British
people tend to emphasize courteousness, whereas Germans are reserved, commenting on
ef?ciency and professionalism, a view perspective shared by Indian guests. French and
South African guests draw on eclectic expressions and express emotion freely. Caucasians
and non-Caucasians are similar in their assessments of good service encounters, but
non-Caucasians are more critical. English ?rst-language speakers are likely to express
concerns and discuss the quality of a wide range of services. Non-English speakers are
more concerned however with the nature of interactions and learning about the local context
of place and people.
The unique contribution made by the paper is that it analyses the service encounter using an
interpretive, cross-cultural perspective, from the customer’s point-of-view, highlighting the
role that emotional labor plays in service encounters. The complexities identi?ed are
important to destination and product managers since visitor/guest evaluations are
commonly used tools for assessing performance, planning future action or perhaps
cancellation of services. The conclusions are also important for service encounter training,
market/product differentiation.
Conclusion
Collectively, the papers con?rm that islands have dimensions of destination management
practices that set them apart in kind and extent from less isolated or geographically de?ned
destinations. These are glocal effects of mobility (inward and outward) resulting from a
globalized tourism economy and geophysical boundedness.
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Xu, P., Brissaud, F. and Salgot, M. (2003), ‘‘Facing water shortage in a Mediterranean tourist area:
Seawater desalination or water reuse?’’, Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, Vol. 3 No. 3,
pp. 63-70.
Zaninovic, K. and Matzarakis, A. (2009), ‘‘The bioclimatological lea?et as a means conveying
climatological information to tourists and the tourism industry’’, International Journal of Biometeorology,
Vol. 53 No. 4, pp. 369-74.
Corresponding author
Keith G. Brown can be contacted at: [email protected]
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1. Ming Ming Su, Geoffrey Wall, Min Jin. 2016. Island livelihoods: Tourism and fishing at Long Islands, Shandong Province,
China. Ocean & Coastal Management 122, 20-29. [CrossRef]
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doc_683728273.pdf
This editorial aims to situate the papers chosen for this special issue within academic
literature and identify their contributions to new knowledge
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Island tourism: destinations: an editorial introduction to the special issue
J enny Cave Keith G. Brown
Article information:
To cite this document:
J enny Cave Keith G. Brown, (2012),"Island tourism: destinations: an editorial introduction to the special issue", International J ournal of
Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 6 Iss 2 pp. 95 - 113
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Island tourism: destinations: an editorial
introduction to the special issue
Jenny Cave and Keith G. Brown
Abstract
Purpose – This editorial aims to situate the papers chosen for this special issue within academic
literature and identify their contributions to new knowledge.
Design/methodology/approach – The editorial ?rst discusses tourism research literature pertinent to
the idiosyncrasies of destination management in island contexts. Second, the paper identi?es the
contributions made to this ?eld by the authors and the implications of their innovative research for island
tourism and destination management.
Findings – Each paper contributes, in its way, to the ?eld of island tourism, either by integration of
explorations of theory, shifting paradigms or revealing new knowledge. This special issue contains two
seminal papers by top academic leaders of the ?elds of islandness and HRM in island destinations. It
also presents papers that comment on destination management issues at macro and micro levels.
Originality/value – Collectively this collection of papers offers new perspectives concerning the
challenges of creating destination image in peripheral locations, the impacts of global mobilities (inward
and outward) on destination labor markets, models for sustainable destination development, the
welcome extended to visitors and returning locals by island communities, destination positioning
strategies and service interactions.
Keywords Island tourism, Destination image, Destination management, Sustainable development,
Service interactions, Human resource management, Tourism, Islands
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
This special issue – ‘‘Island tourism: destinations’’ complements an earlier issue (IJCTHR
Vol. 4, No. 2), ‘‘Island tourism: marketing culture and heritage’’. The ?rst special issue
explored the nature of island tourism, de?ned island cultural heritage product, analyzed the
mechanisms used for product marketing in those contexts and outlines the importance of a
proactive approach to product development that integrates industry, communities and
governments.
This issue takes a broader perspective, examining island tourism from the destination
management perspective. In so doing, it examines the literature surrounding the challenges
of creating islands as destinations, destination differentiation, and destination development
and management issues. The review serves to situate the papers of this special issue that
deal with destination image in peripheral locations, the impacts of mobilities (inward and
outward) on the destination labor markets, sustainable destination development, and the
welcome extended to visitors by island communities, destination positioning strategies and
service interactions.
The collection of papers in this publication produce an interdisciplinary view of the topic,
drawing on expertise from island and migration studies, the ?eld of human resource
management, marketing, community development and service management.
DOI 10.1108/17506181211233036 VOL. 6 NO. 2 2012, pp. 95-113, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182
j
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PAGE 95
Jenny Cave is a Senior
Lecturer in the Department
of Tourism and Hospitality
Management, University of
Waikato, Hamilton, New
Zealand. Keith G. Brown is
Vice President of the
External Department and
an Professor in the
Department of
Organizational
Management, Shannon
School of Business, Cape
Breton University, Sydney,
Canada.
Received: January 2010
Revised: May 2010
Accepted: July 2010
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Islands as destinations
The particular qualities of island as destinations was explored in the editorial for editorial for
‘‘Island tourism: marketing culture and heritage’’ (Brown and Cave, 2010). Islands are
attractive as tourism destinations because of their sense of distance, geographic ?niteness,
cultural and environmental insularity, regardless of their remoteness from centers of
population, access routes or larger economies. These factors offer a physical and
psychological degree of separation from the mainland or source region that has appeal for
the utopian imaginations of local and returning residents, lifestyle newcomers, seasonal
second homeowners or habitual long-stay visitors and short-stay tourists. Hall (2010) notes
that, attracted by the exoticism, exclusivity and unique natural and cultural features of island
destinations, the tourist numbers often far exceed the permanent population. These
characteristics also mean that islands are attractive to researchers as places for ?eld study
and assumed microcosmic examples of larger scale tourism destinations (Burns, 1993;
Essex et al., 2004).
Island environments experience the effects of tourism perhaps more severely than other
destinations where development can be spread or mitigated. Concentration of resorts on the
coastal zone, distance from centers of governance, regulatory mechanisms, infrastructure
planning and application of marketing tools (Mycoo, 2006) can lead to situations where
environmental and social degradation occurs.
The economic base of islands however, can be weak, since many are occupied by
traditional societies (Kokkranikal et al., 2003) engaged in marine and other primary
industries, experience high logistical costs and dependent upon the mainland or for the
provision of basic services (food, fuel, jobs). This can mean tourism has a mixed reception in
peripheral island communities, ranging from a threat to traditional life and local culture and
an economic development opportunity (Nilsson, 2008). Its success then depends upon
authenticity of local cultures, social cohesion, population demographics, and the strength of
the local economy, whether informal as in small island developing states or larger islands of
the developed world, fully engaged in the market economy (Cave, 2009b).
Whilst many islands are isolated, peripheral destinations, others are not, and are close to
large, urbanized centers of population or located on transportation hubs, as noted in the ?rst
special issue. Economic growth in peripherally located islands links closely to the cultivation
of new markets for primary products and to networks connecting peripheral regions to ?ows
of investment capital and tourists (Conradson and Pawson, 2009; Hampton and
Christensen, 2007). These can be leveraged to create differentiation between
destinations, thus marginality can be a source of competitive edge, especially where
diasporan social worlds are leveraged for product creation, ?nancial assistance, capital
investment in destination projects and expertise gained offshore (Cave, 2009b).
Destination differentiation
In terms of the wider literature, the exigencies of the market economy mean that competitive
differentiation, niche positioning and unique selling propositions are foundational to the
tourism industry in a capitalist system. Blumberg (2005) argues that destination marketing is
an essential tool for the strategic management of destinations.
Brand research connects destination differentiation to visitor choice processes and brand
personality. Murphy et al. (2007) link the emotive components of destination brand to
characteristics of tourist self-image for the Australian Whitsunday Islands. A similar ?nding of
self-congruity and destination choice emerges in research in the Canary Islands (Beerli et al.,
2007). The identi?cation of destination attributes is seen as ways to distinguish locations and
develop competitive strategies, as for example in the analysis of the attribute draw for
Japanese tourists to the island of Hawaii (Turner et al., 2000).
Island destination image is enhanced, or reduced by the actual visit experience (Machado
et al., 2009). Research in Barry Island, Wales, indicates that place image is organic, not
static, and that images progress fromna? ¨ve to reevaluated states, factors that can be used in
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newtourismdestination strategies as well as management policy (Selby and Morgan, 1998).
Motivation to visit and accumulated touristic experiences are additive features, as found in a
Canary Island context (Beerli and Martin, 2004a). Motivations interact with affective portions
of destination image, the nature of experiences and socio-demographics are linked to both
affective and cognitive dimensions (Beerli and Martin, 2004b). Visits to the Canadian Queen
Charlotte Islands for ?rst-time visitors were found to shift perceptions of destination image,
positively, in the main, from pre-visit cognitive perceptions of the natural and cultural
environment, to affective emotional responses (MacKay and McVetty, 2002).
Investment in promotion and image creation is very important for repeat visitation and
economic sustainability of island destinations. The information sources which played the
largest part on creating pre-visit image were actually sources outside the control of
destination marketers, such as coffee table books and media reportage (MacKay and
McVetty, 2002). ‘‘Coopetition’’, or networking amongst competitors using e-commerce, can
be a cost-effective way to leverage budgets for the small and medium enterprises that make
up the bulk of the tourism, hospitality, transportation and travel sector, demonstrated as an
effective practice on the island of Elba (Pechlaner et al., 2003).
Other factors affecting destination image, differentiation and management of visitation
patterns are exogenous shocks, risk and crises such as earthquakes, tsunamis, collapse of
?nancial markets, wars, local diseases and global pandemics. Such factors act as
deterrents for the locales in which they occur, but have the effect of increasing visitation in
perceived safe destinations (Dwyer and Sheldon, 2006).
Differences accord to mature and to emerging destinations. Carter (2004) argues that as
tourist destinations approach senescence, that the cultural or natural assets resources upon
which the product is based can be destroyed in the process of expanding, rebuilding or
repositioning the product. Examples of mature destinations are the Baltic islands close to
Scandinavia, Caribbean Islands such as Barbados (Ibrahim and Gill, 2005), Singapore and
several islands in the Mediterranean. Perception and satisfaction studies are frequently
used as a means to develop potential niche and destination positioning strategies (Ibrahim
and Gill, 2005) to reposition the island of Barbados.
The maturity of Baltic Islands relates to high dependency on local markets, overcrowding at
peak times and under-utilization in the lowseason due to access restrictions and seasonality.
Solutions proposed in such circumstances are advertising campaigns to improve the
islands’ image, better training of local tourism industry staff and implementation of a regular
program of market research (Twining-Ward and Baum, 1998). Singapore has reinvented
itself as a conventions destination through careful destination positioning, marketing, and
development (MacLaurin and Litvin, 2001). Whereas in the Mediterranean, Cyprus has
chosen to emphasize values of quality and sustainability, cultural and social heritage in their
destination renewal campaigns (Soteriades et al., 2007). In contrast, Tenerife on the Spanish
Canary islands (Rodr? ´guez Barroso, 2007) and Ios in Greece (Stylidis et al., 2008) have
chosen to differentiate themselves on the basis of leisure and entertainment. The addition of
new product, such as wine tourism in the Canary Islands, is also a way to create a distinction
between destinations as well as to expand the image of the destination to attract new
markets (Scherrer et al., 2009).
Tourism is however, one industry where supply can create demand, especially if the product
is imaginative and exceptionally high quality (Cave et al., 2003), thus new destinations can
emerge. An example being the Isle of Mull where the location of ?lming a very popular
pre-school children’s program can result in spatial concentration of visits on particular
venues and produce new tourism product at the expense of existing tourism ventures and
place pressure on accommodation and infrastructure (Connell, 2005). In emerging island
destinations, the transport interface (Ismail et al., 2000) and local transport infrastructure are
important elements of destination development and sustainability.
Action to redress such issues can also become a tool for destination differentiation, an idea
supported by comparisons of islands with different environmental characteristics, markets
and infrastructure in the Caribbean (Uyarra et al., 2005) and Croatia. Visitors at the popular
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tourist island of Korc? ula, off the coast of Croatia indicate that intention to return, and actual
visitation, link strongly to the environmental attributes of the island’s extensive forests.
Furthermore, tourists are willing to pay an accommodation levy if destined for forest
preservation and regeneration (Vuletic´ et al., 2006).
Renewable, restorable energy sources such as solar energy and wind power can be
leveraged to produce competitive improvement for a tourist destination (Gracan et al.,
2008). Eco-labeling is a way to benchmark the actions, quality and experience of island
destinations (Cetinski and Juric? ic, 2005). Positive references in marketing materials that
echo scenic, unspoiled destination attributes such as inaccessibility and harsh physical
conditions are also noted in the case of the Jeonnam Islands, Korea by Shin (2008) as
enhancements to island destination image.
Destination promotion can be a strategic approach to developing the economic base of an
island, such as Crete. These should be planned, in-depth understanding of tourist
behaviors, assessment of the environmental conditions, awareness of competitive contexts,
contemporary and changing marketing technologies and with the product seen holistically,
as several combinations of a diverse range of products, services and experiences
(Soteriades et al., 2007).
Destination development
The island tourism literature possesses many examples destination development models
which, while they cluster around achieving environmental or social outcomes, are
underpinned by an awareness that tourism deals with ?nite, rather than in?nitely
renewable markets and resources, leading to the need for sustainable approaches in the
management of island destinations (Dodds, 2007). Some examples of this range include
modi?ed versions of the ‘‘Tourismarea life cycle in the Isle of Man and Tenerife’’ (Cooper and
Jackson, 1989; Ioannides, 2008; Oreja Rodriguez et al., 2008), the ‘‘Butler realms of
experience’’ (Ioannides, 2008; Ioannides et al., 2001), environmental audit (Diamantis and
Westlake, 1997) on the ‘‘Greek island of Mytilini, destination knowledge mapping in Korea’’
(Pyo, 2005; Pyo et al., 2002). Others include, the tourism consumption system (Woodside
and Dubelaar, 2002), integrated technical-economic modeling (Xu et al., 2003) and systems
approaches that encompasses multiple social, economic, cultural and environmental
dimensions (Carlsen, 1999; Northcote and Macbeth, 2006).
Yet in reality, the idealized model rarely plays out as described at the destination level,
varying in speed of takeoff, long-run growth, early overshoot and decline, as well, as
stepped and cyclical growth for the Butler Life cycle model. Carrying capacity and global
competition are critical elements of the destination development picture (Cole, 2007), as are
water supply (Essex et al., 2004; Xu et al., 2003) and sanitation infrastructure. Political
instability too is a deterrent to tourism destination development, as shown in the Maldives
(Henderson, 2008).
In addition, the growth of tourism product and markets is sporadic rather than occurring in a
sustained manner, producing a challenge for long-term destination development and
management strategies (Carter, 2004). It is also important to note that stakeholder concerns
are not static, shifting over time and at times are contradictory – changing as a destination
develops (Ioannides, 2008). As a consequence, destination development requires mutual
adjustment between stakeholders, rather than an outcome-based approach (Carter, 2004).
Local community empowerment and stakeholder perceptions are growing theme in
destination development literature as evidenced by the case of Bali (Picard, 2003), Crete
(Briassoulis, 2003), and Korea (Ko and Stewart, 2002). Especially since research shows that
those who are economically dependent on tourism have more positive attitudes towards the
industry than those who were not and the distribution of wealth generated through foreign
tourist accessing local resources is inequitable (Ponting et al., 2005). Tourism has differing
degrees of importance for residents, investors and tourists (Laws, 1991), especially where
endogenous tourism investment takes place. The early development phases often focus
consultation efforts on the business and community sectors that may bene?t directly from
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tourism and not on a wide scan of community interest, creating differential participation
levels. Often exacerbated by local government concerns about protection and conservation
of natural and sociocultural resources, for which the Greek island of Zakynthos provides a
case in point (Apostolopoulos and So¨ nmez, 1999). King et al. (2000) recommend that
destination development should be considered as a framework within which to place
community aspirations and destination marketing concerns, as in the Paci?c Island of Niue.
Lim and Cooper (2009) suggest optimization of tourism status indicators, within a
multifunctional interactive process cycle both visitors and local community concerns as a
ways to overcome many of the current challenges.
Nonetheless, a review of 36 islands, using the tourism penetration index suggests that the
most developed islands for tourism are in the Caribbean, but the least developed are Paci?c
and Indian Ocean islands (McElroy, 2006; McElroy and Albuquerque, 1996). Yet a
successful example for sustainable destination development comes from Newport, Rhode
Island where civic groups have combined their respective efforts to produce an integrated,
cooperative tourism product (Evans, 1997). A hot springs destination, Kurokawa Onsen, on
the island of Kyushu, Japan has taken advantage of the nation’s nostalgia for a pastoral
utopian past to reinvent itself, creating a resort rooted in heritage values that incorporates
elements of an idealized rural village that has become a highly successful business
proposition (McMorran, 2008). Aruba is one of the most successful small island destinations
in terms of tourismnumbers and return on investment because of its use of international hotel
chains and targeted marketing to short-stay package tourists. However the reliance on
external providers and a single market may present an inherent vulnerability (Croes, 2008).
Managing island destinations
The sustainable management of islands as tourism destinations varies according to global
position, proximity to large populations or location on airline and sea routes. All islands are
subject to the effects of seasonality, global population ?ows, and transport infrastructure
investments/scheduling (Me´ re´ o, 1993) and other factors. But geographic limitations and
seasonality make destination development and the effects and rapidity of change all the
more intense for island destinations (Oreja Rodriguez et al., 2008). And, the challenges are
somewhat different at cold water (Nilsson, 2008) and warmwater island (Baldacchino, 2006)
destinations.
Islands settings are ideal backdrops for assessing the management issues of stakeholders,
such as the competing demands of holiday and recreation pursuits versus preservation of
natural and cultural values, or the dilemmas of economic versus social and environmental
sustainability, as on Rottenest Island (Jackson, 2008) and Fraser Island, Australia (Fleming
and Cook, 2008). Bardolet and Sheldon (2008) identify that the particular characteristics of
archipelagoes such as Hawaii (USA) and the Balearic Islands in Spain produce challenges
of destination management, development and marketing that are wider in scope than those
of politically discrete islands.
Environmental degradation is a particularly important management issue for island contexts.
The hotel industry in particular has a heavy impact on the environment of Jamaica from its
high use of fresh water and limited absorption of waste products (Thomas-Hope and
Jardine-Comrie, 2007). In many cases the issue arises because of unplanned and
unrestrained growth on islands distant from governance structures (Cameron and
Gatewood, 2008) and limitations of scale (Essex et al., 2004). Another case is Tahiti and
Moorea where coral reefs are similarly endangered (Salvat and Aubanel, 2002) and in
southern Bali where mass tourism has produced extreme conditions, affecting culture and
environments (Vorlaufer, 1999). Such effects translate into the effects of energy production,
pollution, water shortages and quality, deforestation due to development and many more,
but in the wider context of carbon emissions, climate change and global warming.
Climate change impacts are anticipated in Mediterranean island destinations (Amelung and
Viner, 2006) in many small island states in the Paci?c and around the world (Bedford and
Hugo, 2008). Several policy areas are essential for an island’s capacity to manage
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adaptations to changing climatic conditions. These are: control systems for implementation
and monitoring, education regarding the impacts and processes of climate change, need for
a broad tourism policy framework, economic incentives, participatory approaches and
identifying policy gaps within the wider framework. Indeed some small islands may ?nd that
tourismis not a sustainable option because of the long-termeffects of environmental change
(Dodds and Kelman, 2008).
Shifts in political structure and economic stability also play a major part in the management
of tourism destinations. For example in Cuba where the socialist economy produces supply
shortages, a black market, prostitution, resident apartheid and poor telecommunication
infrastructure and shortfalls in human resource practices such as lack of employee
incentives, poor service delivery (Elliott and Neirotti, 2008) that have consequences for the
nature of the services industries and thus, tourism. However, infrastructure expansion and
the promotion of Cuban history and ecotourism play major roles in retaining international
operators in the Cuban tourism scene, as well as developing the local industry (Cervino and
Cubillo, 2005).
Giannoni and Maupertuis (2007) note that the success of tourism at island destinations in
fact relies upon the integrated management of environmental quality, lodging infrastructures
and services in ways that that contribute to the overall experience. In The Netherlands, an
island community’s strategy of placing high value on the island’s environment has enabled
protectionist regulation and emphasis on development of sustainable innovations that
maintain and market its environmental quality as a source of competitive advantage (Krozer
and Christensen-Redzepovic, 2006). An idea supported in the Caribbean by research which
compared islands with different environmental characteristics, markets and infrastructure
(Uyarra et al., 2005). Another example comes from Croatia where tourist intention to return
and actual visitation link strongly to environmental attributes, leading to leveraging of
renewable, restorable energy sources such as solar energy and wind power for competitive
advantage (Gracan et al., 2008).
Where tourism is dependent on wildlife as the attractor, sustainable management addresses
both human-wildlife interactions and stakeholder interests. The case of Fraser Island’s
dingoes (Burns and Howard, 2003) and Penguin Island near Perth (Wienecke et al., 1995)
provides excellent case studies. As a destination, the Arctowski Station on King George
Island in Antarctica balances the needs of the fragile polar ecosystem with increasing cruise
ship visitors, but also integrates a program of longitudinal research into understanding the
dynamics (Ciaputa and Salwicka, 1997; Stonehouse, 1999).
Sustainability is dif?cult to achieve in island environments in the third world such as the
Lakshadweep archipelago, off the coast of India, occupied by a traditional society, in an
environmentally fragile context, dependant on the mainland for basic services but
nonetheless approaches tourism as a means of redress to alleviate poverty (Kokkranikal
et al., 2003). In the Indo-Paci?c island surf tourism destinations, the lack of governance or
infrastructure means that although the destinations are attractive to tourists (cheap and
accessed without capacity management incentives or controls) over time they suffer
crowding, crime, pollution and price collapse, risks to drinking water and subsistence
?sheries and impacts on cultures. In Madagascar, poor infrastructure, dif?cult access, the
hurricane season and political instability are noted as offsetting perceived bene?ts to local
residents (such as ecotourism revenues) (Ormsby and Mannle, 2006).
Research into the issues of destination management on the island of Mauritius indicates that
while access to an island is important, local infrastructure is however critical to destination
attractiveness (Boopen, 2006). Further, tourist arrivals from Europe, America and Asia are
particularly sensitive to transportation infrastructure on the island. And, that American and
European markets visitors are also sensitive to non-transportation infrastructure at a
destination (Khadaroo and Seetanah, 2007).
In the Caribbean micro-state of Antigua-Barbuda, tourism was judged unsustainable after
30 years of uncontrolled free-market growth, resulting in large-scale infrastructure and
foreign ?nanced, hotel-marina resorts producing loss of wetlands, endemic species and
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pre-historic settlements, illegal sand mining, beach erosion and in-shore pollution. However,
integrated campaigns to alter public opinion, community protests, NGO, private sector and
governmental forces can alter this position (McElroy and Albuquerque, 1997). And, Nilsson
(2008) suggests that a tacit or actual written contract between tourists and local residents
are necessary to bridge gaps in resident and tourist perceptions of the activity in peripheral
destinations.
The conundrum continues to be, how can developing nations earn enough income from
tourism to put infrastructure and capacity management controls in place, without irreparably
damaging the cultural and natural environments and indeed lack of development which are
the draw to those locations (Buckley, 2002a, b). An alternate view comes from Pulau Ubin,
Singapore where governmental agencies and the private are tackling the issues proactively,
yet experiencing the management challenges of retaining the qualities which make the
island a unique natural and cultural attraction but provide for growing pressures for
urbanization (Henderson, 2008). Local government involvement in tourismdevelopment can
be a powerful force in ensuring the sustainability, as in the case of Dauin in the Philippines
where the actions of a town mayor has developed laws to ensure that its coral reefs can be
preserved, sustaining dive tourism to inject foreign funds into the economy for local
suppliers and yet provide food security for the local population (Oracion, 2007). The
Caribbean Turks and Cacaos Islands are attempting to learn from their neighbors (Jamaica,
Bahamas and Barbados) about how to develop island image and range of products based
upon its maritime attractions, history, nature and culture, yet attract long term tourism
investment, based on upscale niche markets (Cameron and Gatewood, 2008).
The Island of Malta, manages its destination product to spread its tourism product and
promotion across several forms and across all seasons, so that returns from tourism are
maximized (Chircop, 2006) for the industry, the island’s activity and accommodation
capacity, employment and pressure on infrastructure and access.
Seasonality is a key element of island destination management, not only determined by
climatic factors but also level of service (star category), opening periods during the year,
school holidays and periodicity of special events (Capo Parrilla et al., 2007). This has a major
effect on residents and as well the nature of labor markets, both of which are also affected by
inward and outward migration – produced by ?ows of, economic and social migration
(Portes and Sensenbrenner, 1993), climate change (Belle and Bramwell, 2005),
post-colonial outmigration (Blunt, 2007) and neo-liberalist restructuring of urban areas
(Sheller, 2009), amongst other factors.
Congested resort islands, located at junctions of large volumes of travelers and close to
large population centers such as Hawaii, experience problems other than seasonal
employment issues. Rather, the high incidence of second homes produces a year-round
housing shortage, distorted by the recreational second-homes that impact on the livability of
resorts and economic sustainability outside seasonal occupation (Goodno, 2004). In fact,
the quality of accommodation is rarely integrated into analysis of destination attractiveness,
development and planning (Sharpley, 2000). Indeed Croes (2008) con?rms that
accommodation portfolio of a destination is an important tool for market differentiation.
In the island of Tenerife, it was found that social worlds and patterns of return are in?uenced
by information obtained fromprevious visits and/or relatives and friends increases the length
of stay (Ledesma et al., 2005). Adams (2004) argues that touristic imagery emerges fromthe
ideas and fantasies of both insiders and outsiders, becoming readily embedded in the local
politics and power dynamics, identity and actions even on a remote Indonesian Island where
tourism is barely known. An Alaskan, Kodiak Island study of the shifts in livelihood from
commercial ?shing to tourism and the impacts on heritage and other community assets, and
attitudes toward tourism development for residents and businesses, show that hosts
supported heritage preservation above conservation and exploitation of natural resources
(Vogt et al., 2004). Easterling identi?es equity, economic, and in?uence as the issues that
in?uence the attitudes of full-time and part-time residents of Chincoteague Island, Virginia,
USA to tourists (Easterling, 2005). Yet visit experiences on remote Paci?c resort islands were
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found to differ on the basis of beach crowdedness, helpfulness of employees, water
potability and whether language was a barrier (Cottrell et al., 1999). From another
perspective, in the island of Fiji, now independent of colonial rule, tourists and recent
non-indigenous residents impose their own cultural and heritage values on the host
community, creating a neo-colonialist view of the tourism product with consequences for the
local industry and destination marketing (Fisher, 2004). Thus a pervading theme is the
qualitative difference between human interactions in terms of casual, non-monetary
(encounters) and transactions (monetary) between island residents, the tourism industry
and visitors, as was con?rmed by Cave (2009a).
Managing stakeholder interactions
At island destinations, the seasonality of vitiation, employment and the enclave nature of
island resorts have consequences for the success or failure of service equality, visit
experiences. Islands are contested spaces, often contrasted to ‘‘other’’ places such as
‘‘mainland’’ and described relationally by contrasts of physicality (tropical versus coldwater
ice-bound islands of both hemispheres, inhabited by aboriginal people versus dominated
by colonial peoples, small versus large, uninhabited versus populous, resource-rich versus
resource-poor) or of identity such as paradise or prison, victim or resourceful in the face of
threats, internal or external (Hay, 2006), vulnerable or examples of community resilience
(Briguglio et al., 2006). They are evocative of welcome and inclusive communality
(Novaczek and Ronstrom, 2007) and enmeshed sociability (Massey, 1999) but at the same
time as places of isolation (Cliff, 1989) and sites of real and perceptual imprisonment and
exile (Bongie, 1998). Turvey (2001) relates ‘‘Islandness’’ to traditional island living and island
lifestyles, amongst other characteristics such as cultural identity/heritage, indigenous
peoples, traditional cultures and customs. Thus, human interactions are an important issue.
Islands are as much living, complex and ?uid, shifting, complex and liminal inter-island
spaces and networks (Dodds and Royle, 2003; Hay, 2006; Kuwhara et al., 2007) as they are
observable and capable of being de?ned (Selwelyn, 1980; Terrell, 1999). The concept of
‘‘Islandness’’ as linkage (with the mainland or with the wider external world of sea and land is
explored by (Brophy, 2004) and (Baldacchino, 2004, 2007) in the modern day. But this
pattern is well recognized in prehistory, expressed in iconographic and monumental
structures to unify the living and the dead, the islands, the sea and mainland (Frieman, 2008)
as well as by rituals and long traditions of travel between locales (Robb, 2001).
The movements of peoples by migration create diasporan social worlds that possess
inherent confusions, linkages and transformations. Aase (1994) illustrates how these create
culturally constructed links between space, migration patterns and form nation states. Soon
after migration, modi?cations that take place to ‘‘Islandness’’ soon after migration (Kamali,
2008) yet over successive generations Islandness can become simultaneously diluted and
reinvented, in some cases melded with elements of the host or community (Anae, 2002) or
dominant subculture (Fitzgerald, 1998) which produce paradoxes of identity and alienation
(Fog Olwig, 2001) in the new location, and similar tensions in the homeland on return
voyages (King and Connell, 1999) that translate into contested host-guest and guest-local
relations. Research into host-guest relationships at island destinations is not extensive, and
relatively little into guest-local relationships.
The experiential qualities of boutique accommodation on the South Island of New Zealand
(McIntosh and Siggs, 2005) is essential to tourism transactions. Working holidays in
Dominica, although informal and non-monetary, carry sets of obligations that belong to
host-guest relationships into local-guest tourist interactions (Heuman, 2005). In indigenous
tourism product, such as during a marae (tribal meeting place) visit in New Zealand, the
rules of cultural custom and practice apply to host-guest relationships (McIntosh and
Johnson, 2004). On the islands of Flores in Eastern Indonesia (Erb, 2000) foreigners are
welcomed as special guests who have a particular role within an adapted traditional cultural
framework. Yet in the Cook Islands, this welcome is complicated by transactions in which
cash changes hands, changing the service expectations that accompany the relationship
(Berno, 1999). Duval suggests that niche alternatives to mass tourism are particularly
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effective in producing more positive interactions between hosts and guests in the context of
the Caribbean island of St Vincent (Duval, 1998).
Guest-local issues researched in island destinations include the incidence of crime (De
Albuquerque and McElroy, 1999), sexual harassment of tourists on Barbados where female
tourists are more likely to be harassed by vendors and males by peddlers (De Albuquerque
and McElroy, 2001), as well as incidences of drug peddling. Yet repeat visitors were less
likely than ?rst or younger visitors to report abuse.
Trans-nationalism produces heterotopic perspectives, where encounters with difference are
glocal inevitabilities. On Magarita Island, Venezuela, internal migration and the return of
male residents who had left the island to seek work elsewhere, accompanies a shift from a
rural to an urban economy caused by the establishment of a duty-free shopping port (Monk
and Alexander, 1986). Yet, even in this context, those who were once hosts become guests
on return visits to islands of origin, such as in the Eastern Caribbean, producing negotiated
identities (Duval, 2003).
Out-migration on Niue has produced attitudes amongst local residents of acceptance of
mobility, ?uidity of social worlds and coexistent hope and despair (Connell, 2008) for the
continuance of traditions that are becoming, of necessity, glocally enacted. But in newlands,
the viability of tourism attractions as redress for social and economic marginality are
explored for Paci?c Island migrant communities by Cave (2009b) and Cave et al. (2007).
Stakeholder perception analysis conducted in island destinations appears in the literature in
more than 30 cases, especially in the context of tourism as a developmental tool to redress
social or economic marginality. A sample of which includes work in the United States Virgin
Islands regarding the relationship between agriculture and the tourism and hospitality
industry (Mwaijande et al., 2009), and bio-climatological education of the tourist industry in
Hvar, Croatia (Zaninovic and Matzarakis, 2009). Community participation in planning and
decision-making (Marzuki, 2008) in the Langkawi Islands, Malaysia, and the reaction of
stakeholders to cultural product and authenticity (Wall and Xie, 2005) also appear. Further,
the interface between traditional marine industries and tourism product on Alonissos Island,
Greece (Oikonomou and Dikou, 2008), the Galapagos Islands (Baine et al., 2007) and many
more.
However, two areas not canvassed extensively are human resource management and
guest-staff relationships at island destinations and resident’s attitudes to long-term migrants
from other countries. This special issue discusses all three and contributes to the literature
by highlighting new issues, drawing together new multi-disciplinary perspectives and
presenting the work of innovators in the ?eld.
Papers in this special issue
The range of papers encompassed in this volume challenge established ways of viewing
and de?ning destinations. They are ordered to present an off-shore perspective on island
destinations, then to examine on-shore interactions of the tourism and hospitality industry in
terms of planning for sustainable destinations, community relationships, and service
interface dynamics.
For instance, the ?rst paper in this volume examines the parameters of destination image for
northern, peripheral destinations and the dynamics of destination marketing (Magnusson
and Gudlaugsson). Next, the interface of global mobilities, local island labor market and the
tourism service culture at the regional and product as destination level by Baum. This paper
also draws implications for service interactions.
On-shore, destination development is investigated in terms of theorizing, mapping and
testing potential outcomes, causes and effects of tourism in the paper by Nicely and
Palakurthi. Baldacchino’s paper, interrogates the notion of a welcoming society for particular
segments of society where perceptions of immigrants, returning locals and tourists differ
and accorded different treatments. Hennessey, Yun and Macdonald illustrate that
destination marketing techniques, speci?cally activity-based segmentation, are ?uid and
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link strongly to other destination attributes, such as accommodation. The ?nal paper by
Prayag and Ryan show that service encounters at an island destination relate to destination
image, emotional labor and cross-cultural perceptions, based on nationality.
The next section outlines the contributions to theory, new knowledge and implications for
tourism and hospitality industry made by each of the articles featured in this volume.
T. Gudlaugsson and G. Magnusson
This paper examines the question of destination image for a peripheral island destination,
Iceland, but in the context of contemporary global mobility and whether competitive
advantage, effectively leveraged by clustered destination marketing strategies, as opposed
to the promotion of individual destinations. This well structured research undertakes
cognitive and perceptual mapping of several peripheral destinations located in the far
northern hemisphere, using affective, cognitive and conative attributes to identify
commonalities and distinctive features. Destination images identi?ed and compared
include Iceland, Faroe Islands, Finland, Greenland, Norway and Scotland. Destination
image and positioning theory, as well as ‘‘co-opetition’’ theory situates this work.
The research found that Iceland, the Faroe Islands and Greenland have many similar
attributes in terms of destination image, and these might form the basis of a common,
‘‘co-opetive’’ positioning strategy. The unique contribution made by this paper is that it
demonstrates the effectiveness of perceptual mapping as a viable tool with which to
compare several destinations. Further, the paper con?rms destination image in island
locations as critical to destination marketing, but for in peripheral island destinations it is
more important to cooperate rather than compete in their marketing efforts.
T. Baum
In this seminal paper, Professor Baum reviews 15 years of research into human resource
management dimension of the tourism workplace in the context of small island destinations,
characterized by micro to small tourism industries, immature destinations and economies,
largely dependent on primary industries, in the context of seasonality and global mobilities.
The paper crystallizes theoretical and practical issues of the labor market on small island
economies that can include limited availability of local skills, few educational opportunities,
inward and outward social and economic mobility. These produce dif?culties in sourcing and
recruiting staff, employee retention, trainee development and career progression as well as
dependency on external labor, translating into the new phenomenon of lifestyle employees.
The research analyzes the issue of interactions between host-guest-employees and cultural
dissonance between the tourism industry priorities for service and skills of traditional island
societies, noting engagement in marine or agricultural industries. The author locates the
discussion in role, labor aesthetics and labor market theory.
The uniqueness of this paper lies in its research scope and synthesis of many years of
research in HRM in island contexts, and the conclusion that location and scope are
determinants of structural and cultural HRM issues in the tourism sector. Further, the author
reveals systemic contradictions in HRM practices that have repercussions in the operational
domain of tourism, and upon ?nancial effectiveness, marketing, user satisfaction as well as
the overall sustainability of the sector and service quality.
For example, contradictions are apparent in the sectors’ strategic emphases on service
culture, empowerment and engagement of high quality staff yet its tolerance of ambiguous
operational attitudes and HRM practices that permit ad hoc monitoring, highly ?exible
employment, little investment in human capital and a new emphasis on technology
substitution that reduces or eliminates staff.
Further, the paper highlights impacts that these factors have on operational human resource
management (HRM). The issues of small island destinations mirror those of larger,
metropolitan destinations but have critical structural and cultural consequences in smaller
locales and, also, paradoxically, in luxury products where differentiation from competitors is
essential.
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A. Nicely and R. Palakurthi
Nicely and Palakurthi take a community perspective on this issue of destination planning and
development. First, they develop a model from literature in Sustainable Tourism for the
Elimination of Poverty (STEP) that identi?es causal relationships between several types of
tourismand their effects, and factors that in?uence tourismsuccess. The types identi?ed are
domestic, cruise, mass, rural, casino, cultural and diasporan tourism. The factors in?uencing
tourism success are visitor capacity, average daily spend, and economic leakages.
The model postulates several scenarios that can become a guide for communities to
consider various options and outcomes as well as to think about potential strategies to
mitigate negative effects. The paper reports on tests undertaken by the author of the veracity
of the model, triangulating the model with primary data from a sample of tourism industry
leaders and secondary data from newspaper accounts, government documents and
research literature. The paper applies this model to the community of St Thomas, on the
island of Jamaica.
The unique contribution made by this paper is its comprehensive, validated modeling of the
dynamics of tourism’s effects on destinations and the potential that this model has for
assisting island communities to consider the bene?ts and costs of the tourism industry for
geographically isolated, host communities. The model has the potential to guide and
empower local decision-making.
G. Baldacchino
Professor Baldacchino, Tier 2 Canada Research Chair of the Island Studies Centre for
Research Excellence, uses an Island Studies and migration lens to demonstrate the
contradictions of an apparent ‘‘welcoming culture’’ but the reality of limits to host hospitality
on Prince Edward Island, Canada.
The qualitative paper contrasts attitudinal differences to short stay visitors and long-stay
immigrants, the de?nitional ‘‘messiness’’ of who is an ‘‘islander’’, the effects of
trans-nationalism as well as issues of identity and behavioral differences at an on-shore
destination level. Categories of tourist identi?ed in the paper include former islanders (who
can behave as tourists), short-stay tourists, and long-stay immigrants who may remain
inde?nitely but who are treated as outsiders by local residents.
In terms of theory, the paper highlights notions of social and bridging capital that are
important to consider as solutions to the effects of otherness and cultural distance. It also
considers the characteristics of insider-outsider interactions and the consequences that
such dynamics have for service delivery, quality and visitor likelihood to return.
The unique contribution made by this paper is that it identi?es tourism/travel markets that
have hitherto been noted but not described, and contrasts host-guest dynamics which may
be peculiar to island and peripheral destinations, but which nonetheless present
management challenges for the industry.
S. Hennessey, D. Yun and R. Macdonald
This quantitative paper offers an activity-based market segmentation approach to the
analysis of ?rst time visitors to the destination of Prince Edward Island, Canada. The work
proposes a range of destination management strategies based upon an activity continuum
that progress from culture to nature to casual tourism activities. The unique contribution of
this paper is that the activity continuum correlates with accommodation provision,
restaurants and to shopping preferences at the destination management level and marketed
as integrated packages to ?rst time visitors.
Hennessey, Yun and Macdonald research the activities of ?rst time visitors to Prince Edward
Island with a view to challenging the current spend on destination marketing and for future
product positioning strategies for the destination marketing in this mature tourism
destination, in terms of sustainability, pro?tability and growth across the sector.
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The ?ndings identify relationships between travel activities and produce activity-based
segmentation of these visitors, linked to demographics, socio-economic variable and
trip-related destination characteristics. Speci?cally, the current destination marketing
campaign does not address almost two-thirds of the visitors. Three distinct segments exist –
culture-oriented, active and casual. Further, they con?rm work done by other researchers,
such as, that these segments overlap to some extent and that the range of activities pursued
are dependent upon place of origin. Thus, active visitors are more likely to be from distant
parts of Canada and casuals reside in adjacent provinces or are internationals, whereas
culture seekers are from US or non-Maritime Canada. The highest spenders are
culture-oriented visitors.
The unique contribution made by this paper is the clear conclusion that while distinct based
on the majority of time spent, these categories are not exclusive and that they represent
continuum of activity clusters, linked to accommodation, food and beverage and travel
preferences. Such ?ndings have implications for preparing and leveraging destination
marketing campaigns for management of mature destinations.
G. Prayag and C. Ryan
The Prayag and Ryan paper studies the emotional connections implicit in guest-employee
relationships in luxury hotels on the island destination of Mauritius, basing the work in social
interaction, role and script theory situating guest interpretations of the service encounter in
cultural norms and values.
Using a phenomenological methodology, veri?ed by neural network analysis, they ?nd that
differences explicable by nationality, ethnicity and languages spoken during the service
encounter in?uence ratings given by various nationalities more than actual satisfaction.
Further, they identify several values that characterize the nature of interactions that guests
expect in a service encounter, such as integrity and respect, authentically displayed
emotions, a way to learn about the destination and safeness of destination activities. British
people tend to emphasize courteousness, whereas Germans are reserved, commenting on
ef?ciency and professionalism, a view perspective shared by Indian guests. French and
South African guests draw on eclectic expressions and express emotion freely. Caucasians
and non-Caucasians are similar in their assessments of good service encounters, but
non-Caucasians are more critical. English ?rst-language speakers are likely to express
concerns and discuss the quality of a wide range of services. Non-English speakers are
more concerned however with the nature of interactions and learning about the local context
of place and people.
The unique contribution made by the paper is that it analyses the service encounter using an
interpretive, cross-cultural perspective, from the customer’s point-of-view, highlighting the
role that emotional labor plays in service encounters. The complexities identi?ed are
important to destination and product managers since visitor/guest evaluations are
commonly used tools for assessing performance, planning future action or perhaps
cancellation of services. The conclusions are also important for service encounter training,
market/product differentiation.
Conclusion
Collectively, the papers con?rm that islands have dimensions of destination management
practices that set them apart in kind and extent from less isolated or geographically de?ned
destinations. These are glocal effects of mobility (inward and outward) resulting from a
globalized tourism economy and geophysical boundedness.
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