Description
assignment
Subject :Information Systems for Managers
Q1. Define the term SYSTEM. Requirement analysis and definition is the foundation for any systems development. It is independent of the approach you take for design. Explain this statement with example. Sol: A collection of components that work together to realize some objective forms a system. Basically there are three major components in every system, namely input, processing and output.
In a system the different components are connected with each other and they are interdependent. For example, Human body represents a complete natural system. We are also bound by many national systems such as political system, economic system, educational system and so forth. The objective of the system demands that some output is produced as a result of processing the suitable inputs. SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE System life cycle is an organizational process of developing and maintaining systems. It helps in establishing a system project plan, because it gives overall list of processes and sub-processes required developing a system. System development life cycle means combination of various activities. In other words we can say that various activities put together are referred as
system development life cycle. In the System Analysis and Design terminology, the system development life cycle means software development life cycle. Following are the different phases of software development cycle:
• • • • • • • •
System study Feasibility study System analysis System design Coding Testing Implementation Maintenance
The different phases of software development life cycle is shown in Fig.
Fig. 29.1 Different phases of Software development Life Cycle
PHASES OF SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE Let us now describe the different phases and the related activities of system development life cycle in detail. (a) System Study System study is the first stage of system development life cycle. This gives a clear picture of what actually the physical system is? In practice, the system study is done in two phases. In the first phase, the preliminary survey of the system is done which helps in identifying the scope of the system. The second phase of the system study is more detailed and in-depth study in which the identification of user’s requirement and the limitations and problems of the present system are studied. After completing the system study, a system proposal is prepared by the System Analyst (who studies the system) and placed before the user. The proposed system contains the findings of the present system and recommendations to overcome the limitations and problems of the present system in the light of the user’s requirements. To describe the system study phase more analytically, we would say that system study phase passes through the following steps:
• • •
problem identification and project initiation background analysis inference or findings
(b) Feasibility Study On the basis of result of the initial study, feasibility study takes place. The feasibility study is basically the test of the proposed system in the light of its workability, meeting user’s requirements, effective use of resources and .of course, the cost effectiveness. The main goal of feasibility study is not to solve the problem but to achieve the scope. In the process of feasibility study, the cost and benefits are estimated with greater accuracy. (c) System Analysis Assuming that a new system is to be developed, the next phase is system analysis. Analysis involved a detailed study of the current system, leading to specifications of a new system. Analysis is a detailed study of various operations performed by a system and their relationships within and outside the system. During analysis, data are collected on the available files, decision points and transactions handled by the present system. Interviews, on-site observation and questionnaire are the tools used for system analysis. Using the following steps it becomes easy to draw the exact boundary of the new system under consideration:
• •
Keeping in view the problems and new requirements Workout the pros and cons including new areas of the system
All procedures, requirements must be analyzed and documented in the form of detailed data flow diagrams (DFDs), data dictionary, logical data structures and miniature specifications. System Analysis also includes subdividing of complex process involving the entire system, identification of data store and manual processes.
The main points to be discussed in system analysis are:
•
Specification of what the new system is to accomplish based on the user requirements. Functional hierarchy showing the functions to be performed by the new system and their relationship with each other. Function network which are similar to function hierarchy but they highlight the those functions which are common to more than one procedure. List of attributes of the entities - these are the data items which need to be held about each entity (record)
•
•
•
(d) System Design Based on the user requirements and the detailed analysis of a new system, the new system must be designed. This is the phase of system designing. It is a most crucial phase in the development of a system. Normally, the design proceeds in two stages:
• •
preliminary or general design Structure or detailed design
Preliminary or general design: In the preliminary or general design, the features of the new system are specified. The costs of implementing these features and the benefits to be derived are estimated. If the project is still considered to be feasible, we move to the detailed design stage. Structure or Detailed design: In the detailed design stage, computer oriented work begins in earnest. At this stage, the design of the system becomes more
structured. Structure design is a blue print of a computer system solution to a given problem having the same components and inter-relationship among the same components as the original problem. Input, output and processing specifications are drawn up in detail. In the design stage, the programming language and the platform in which the new system will run are also decided. There are several tools and techniques used for designing. These tools and techniques are:
• • • • • •
Flowchart Data flow diagram (DFDs) Data dictionary Structured English Decision table Decision tree
Each of the above tools for designing will be discussed in detailed in the next lesson. (e) Coding After designing the new system, the whole system is required to be converted into computer understanding language. Coding the new system into computer programming language does this. It is an important stage where the defined procedure is transformed into control specifications by the help of a computer language. This is also called the programming phase in which the programmer converts the program specifications into computer
instructions, which we refer as programs. The programs coordinate the data movements and control the entire process in a system. It is generally felt that the programs must be modular in nature. This helps in fast development, maintenance and future change, if required. (f) Testing Before actually implementing the new system into operations, a test run of the system is done removing all the bugs, if any. It is an important phase of a successful system. After codifying the whole programs of the system, a test plan should be developed and run on a given set of test data. The output of the test run should match the expected results. Using the test data following test run are carried out:
• •
Unit test System test
Unit test: When the programs have been coded and compiled and brought to working conditions, they must be individually tested with the prepared test data. Any undesirable happening must be noted and debugged (error corrections). System Test: After carrying out the unit test for each of the programs of the system and when errors are removed, then system test is done. At this stage the test is done on actual data. The complete system is executed on the actual data. At each stage of the execution, the results or output of the system is analysed. During the result analysis, it may be found that the outputs are not matching the expected out of the system. In such case, the
errors in the particular programs are identified and are fixed and further tested for the expected output. When it is ensured that the system is running error-free, the users are called with their own actual data so that the system could be shown running as per their requirements. (g) Implementation After having the user acceptance of the new system developed, the implementation phase begins. Implementation is the stage of a project during which theory is turned into practice. During this phase, all the programs of the system are loaded onto the user's computer. After loading the system, training of the users starts. Main topics of such type of training are:
• • • •
How to execute the package How to enter the data How to process the data (processing details) How to take out the reports
After the users are trained about the computerized system, manual working has to shift from manual to computerized working. The following two strategies are followed for running the system:
i.
Parallel run: In such run for a certain defined period, both the systems i.e. computerized and manual are executed in parallel. This strategy is helpful because of the following:
o
Manual results can be compared with the results of the computerized system. Failure of the computerized system at the early stage, does not affect the working of the organization, because the manual system continues to work, as it used to do.
o
i.
Pilot run: In this type of run, the new system is installed in parts. Some part of the new system is installed first and executed successfully for considerable time period. When the results are found satisfactory then only other parts are implemented. This strategy builds the confidence and the errors are traced easily.
(h) Maintenance Maintenance is necessary to eliminate errors in the system during its working life and to tune the system to any variations in its working environment. It has been seen that there are always some errors found in the system that must be noted and corrected. It also means the review of the system from time to time. The review of the system is done for:
• • •
knowing the full capabilities of the system knowing the required changes or the additional requirements studying the performance
If a major change to a system is needed, a new project may have to be set up to carry out the change. The new project will then proceed through all the above life cycle phases.
Q2. Write a short note on the following: (i) Knowledge Management System (ii) Data, Information and Knowledge Flow in Business Process (iii) Business Continuity Planning
(i) KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Knowledge Management System (KM System) refers to a system for managing knowledge in organizations for supporting creation, capture, storage and dissemination of information. It can comprise a part (neither necessary nor sufficient) of a Knowledge Management initiative. The idea of a KM system is to enable employees to have ready access to the organization's documented base of facts, sources of information, and solutions. For example a typical claim justifying the creation of a KM system might run something like this: an engineer could know the metallurgical composition of an alloy that reduces sound in gear systems. Sharing this information organization wide can lead to more effective engine design and it could also lead to ideas for new or improved equipment. A KM system could be any of the following:
1. Document
based
i.e.
any
technology
that
permits
creation/management/sharing of formatted documents such as Lotus Notes, web, distributed databases etc.
2. Ontology/Taxonomy
based:
these
are
similar
to
document
technologies in the sense that a system of terminologies (i.e. ontology)
are used to summarize the document e.g. Author, Sub, Organization etc. as in DAML & other XML based ontologism
3. Based on AI technologies which use a customized representation
scheme to represent the problem domain.
4. Provide network maps of the organization showing the flow of
communication between entities and individuals
5. Increasingly social computing tools are being deployed to provide a
more organic approach to creation of a KM system. KMS systems deal with information (although Knowledge Management as a discipline may extend beyond the information centric aspect of any system) so they are a class of information system and may build on, or utilize other information sources. Distinguishing features of a KMS can include: 1. Purpose: a KMS will have an explicit Knowledge Management objective of some type such as collaboration, sharing good practice or the like. 2. Context: One perspective on KMS would see knowledge is information that is meaningfully organized, accumulated and embedded in a context of creation and application. 3. Processes: KMS are developed to support and enhance knowledgeintensive processes, tasks or projects of e.g., creation, construction, identification, organization, capturing, linking, acquisition, selection, valuation, visualization, structuring, formalization,
transfer, distribution, retention, maintenance, refinement, revision, evolution, accessing, retrieval and last but not least the application of knowledge, also called the knowledge life cycle.
4. Participants: Users can play the roles of active, involved participants in knowledge networks and communities fostered by KMS, although this is not necessarily the case. KMS designs are held to reflect that knowledge is developed collectively and that the “distribution” of knowledge leads to its continuous change, reconstruction and application in different contexts, by different participants with differing backgrounds and experiences. 5. Instruments: KMS support KM instruments, e.g., the capture, creation and sharing of the codifiable aspects of experience, the creation of corporate knowledge directories, taxonomies or ontologies, expertise locators, skill management systems, collaborative filtering and handling of interests used to connect people, the creation and fostering of communities or knowledge networks. A KMS offers integrated services to deploy KM instruments for networks of participants, i.e. active knowledge workers, in knowledge-intensive business processes along the entire knowledge life cycle. KMS can be used for a wide range of cooperative, collaborative, adhocracy and hierarchy communities, virtual organizations, societies and other virtual networks, to manage media contents; activities, interactions and work-flows purposes; projects; works, networks, departments, privileges, roles, participants and other active users in order to extract and generate new knowledge and to enhance, leverage and transfer in new outcomes of knowledge providing new services using new formats and interfaces and different communication channels. The term KMS can be associated to Open Source Software, and Open Standards, Open Protocols and Open Knowledge licenses, initiatives and policies.
(ii) Business continuity planning
Business continuity planning life cycle Business continuity planning (BCP) is “planning which identifies the organization's exposure to internal and external threats and synthesizes hard and soft assets to provide effective prevention and recovery for the organization, whilst maintaining competitive advantage and value system integrity”.[1] It is also called Business continuity & Resiliency planning (BCRP). The logistical plan used in BCP is called a business continuity plan. The intended effect of BCP is to ensure business continuity, which is an ongoing state or methodology governing how business is conducted. In plain language, BCP is working out how to stay in business in the event of disaster. Typical incidents include local events like building fires, regional incidents like earthquakes or floods, or national incidents like pandemic illnesses. However, it is not limited to just that. Any event that could cause the potential for loss of business should be considered, including any event that the business is dependent on, such as loss of source of supply, loss of critical infrastructure (a major piece of machinery or
computing/network resource), or the result of theft or vandalism. As such, risk management must be incorporated as part of BCP. BCP may be a part of an organizational learning effort that helps reduce operational risk. This process may be integrated with improving security and corporate reputation risk management practices. In December 2006, the British Standards Institution (BSI) released a new independent standard for BCP — BS 25999-1. Prior to the introduction of BS 25999, BCP professionals relied on BSI information security standard BS 7799, which only peripherally addressed BCP to improve an organization's information security compliance. BS 25999's applicability extends to organizations of all types, sizes, and missions whether governmental or private, profit or non-profit, large or small, or industry sector. In 2007, the BSI published the second part, BS 25999-2 "Specification for Business Continuity Management", that specifies requirements for implementing, operating and improving a documented Business Continuity Management System (BCMS). In 2004, the United Kingdom enacted the Civil Contingencies Act 2004, a statute that instructs all emergency services and local authorities to actively prepare and plan for emergencies. Local authorities also have the legal obligation under this act to actively lead promotion of business continuity practices in their respective geographical areas A completed BCP cycle results in a formal printed manual available for reference before, during, and after disruptions. Its purpose is to reduce
adverse stakeholder impacts determined by both the disruption's scope (who and what it affects to what extent) and duration (e.g., hours, days, months). Measurable business impact analysis (BIA) "zones" -- areas in which hazards and threats reside—include civil, economic, natural, technical, secondary and subsequent. For the purposes of this article, the term disaster will be used to represent natural disaster, human-made disaster, and disruptions. Before January 1, 2000, governments anticipated computer failures, called the Y2k problem, in important public utility infrastructures like banking, power, telecommunication, health and financial industries. Since 1983, regulatory agencies like the American Bankers Association and Banking Administration Institute (BAI) required their supporting members to exercise operational continuity practices (later supported by more formal BCP manuals) that protect the public interest. Newer regulations were often based on formalized standards defined under ISO/IEC 17799 or BS 7799. Both regulatory and global business focus on BCP arguably waned after the problem-free Y2K rollover. Some believe this lax attitude ended September 11th 2001, when simultaneous terrorist attacks devastated downtown New York City and changed the 'worst case scenario' paradigm for business continuity planning.[2] BCP methodology is scalable for an organization of any size and complexity. Even though the methodology has roots in regulated industries, any type of organization may create a BCP manual, and arguably every organization should have one in order to ensure the organization's longevity.
Evidence that firms do not invest enough time and resources into BCP preparations are evident in disaster survival statistics. Fires permanently close 44% of the business affected.[3] In the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, 150 businesses out of 350 affected failed to survive the event. Conversely, the firms affected by the September 11 attacks with welldeveloped and tested BCP manuals were back in business within days.[4] A BCP manual for a small organization may be simply a printed manual stored safely away from the primary work location, containing the names, addresses, and phone numbers for crisis management staff, general staff members, clients, and vendors along with the location of the offsite data backup storage media, copies of insurance contracts, and other critical materials necessary for organizational survival. At its most complex, a BCP manual may outline a secondary work site, technical requirements and readiness, regulatory reporting requirements, work recovery measures, the means to reestablish physical records, the means to establish a new supply chain, or the means to establish new production centers. Firms should ensure that their BCP manual is realistic and easy to use during a crisis. As such, BCP sits alongside crisis management and disaster recovery planning and is a part of an organization's overall risk management. The development of a BCP manual can have five main phases: 1. Analysis
2. Solution design 3. Implementation 4. Testing and organization acceptance 5. Maintenance.
(iii) DATA, INFORMTION AND KNOWLEDGE Business related knowledge has been identified as the single most important factor ultimately defining organizational competitiveness (Druker 1989; kock, McQueen and baker 1996) new product design and delivery has led to an increase in the demand for knowledge workers and in increase in the knowledge-intensive labour of component (Boland and Tenkasi 1995). The same phenomenon, combined with the emergence of automation technologies, has been argued as having forced organization into expanding their information processing and service departments, while at the same time considerably reducing the number of material handling workers. As (Durker 1993) point out: In 1980, about 9 out of 10 workers made and moved things; today, that is down to one out of 5. The other 4 out of 5 are knowledge people or service workers. These workers converser on phone, write report attending meeting. But have organizational practices adapted to these practices? A number of proponent of contemporary managerial approach would be argue that “yes, we are moving towards knowledge-oriented practices.” This move, however, has apparently relied mostly on either opinions professed by management guru or abstract theoretical speculations and very little on the analysis of actual practices and how these practices can be improved within the new knowledge-oriented business context.
Knowledge, Information and Data The concept of knowledge, information and data are closely related. Althougth distinct, these three abstract concepts are often confused. As common place as the confusion of the data and information, is the confusion of knowledge and information, nurtured even by prominent thinks, who themselves pioneered the idea of information-based organizations. For the purpose of this study, we have defined these three concepts as follow (Kock, McQueen and Baker 1996). Data is a carrier of knowledge and information, a means through which knowledge and information can be stored and transferred. Both information and knowledge are communicated through data, and by means of data storage and transfer devices and systems. In this sense, piece of data only becomes information or knowledge when it is interpreted by its receiver (Kock, McQueen and Baker 1996). In the same sense, information and knowledge held by a person can only be communicated to another person after they are encoded as data. Printed paper and computer disks are examples of data storage devices. A corporate e-mail and the international airmail systems are examples of and storage and transfer systems. Information: While information is descriptive, that is, it relates to the past and the present, knowledge is eminently predictive, that is, it provides the basis for the prediction of the future with certain degree of certainty based on information about the past and their present (Dubin 1976 and Camerer and Johnson 1991). From this perspective, statements of the type “the aluminum into the smelter will be smelted in 30 minutes” convey knowledge. This occurs whether these statements are true or false, since the truth of knowledge and information is relative –
Business Process Business processes have been traditionally defined as sets of interrelated activities, or work flows (Harrington 1994), (White and Fischer 1994). We understand, however, that the scope of the business process construct can be broadened by considering elements associated with its activities in a way that turns the business process construct into a rich unit of analysis in organizational studies. In this sense a business process can also be seen as comprising the functions (carried out by organizational staff) and tools involved in the execution of the activities in a process. Moreover, the business process concept can be seen as comprising the product flow between activities, and the suppliers and customers of the process. This generic view of business processes is illustrated through the “receive materials” process of a hypothetical chimney manufacture, shown figure 1 The process shown in the figure comprises four functions, namely acquisitions assistant, assistant, quality inspector, stock assistant and sales assistant. Phone, e-mail, quality inspection equipment, mail, fax, internal mail, fork lift, and computer stock system are tools used in the process. Aluminum tubes, accessory parts, delivery form, materials receipt, replacement order, quality inspection report, and stock data are products – some of them are data and some material products – that flow between functions in the process. Finally, Aluminum & Co. and Chimney Accessories &Co. are suppliers of the process, whereas the production manager of the chimney manufacturer is the customer of the process.
doc_523697082.doc
assignment
Subject :Information Systems for Managers
Q1. Define the term SYSTEM. Requirement analysis and definition is the foundation for any systems development. It is independent of the approach you take for design. Explain this statement with example. Sol: A collection of components that work together to realize some objective forms a system. Basically there are three major components in every system, namely input, processing and output.
In a system the different components are connected with each other and they are interdependent. For example, Human body represents a complete natural system. We are also bound by many national systems such as political system, economic system, educational system and so forth. The objective of the system demands that some output is produced as a result of processing the suitable inputs. SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE System life cycle is an organizational process of developing and maintaining systems. It helps in establishing a system project plan, because it gives overall list of processes and sub-processes required developing a system. System development life cycle means combination of various activities. In other words we can say that various activities put together are referred as
system development life cycle. In the System Analysis and Design terminology, the system development life cycle means software development life cycle. Following are the different phases of software development cycle:
• • • • • • • •
System study Feasibility study System analysis System design Coding Testing Implementation Maintenance
The different phases of software development life cycle is shown in Fig.
Fig. 29.1 Different phases of Software development Life Cycle
PHASES OF SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE Let us now describe the different phases and the related activities of system development life cycle in detail. (a) System Study System study is the first stage of system development life cycle. This gives a clear picture of what actually the physical system is? In practice, the system study is done in two phases. In the first phase, the preliminary survey of the system is done which helps in identifying the scope of the system. The second phase of the system study is more detailed and in-depth study in which the identification of user’s requirement and the limitations and problems of the present system are studied. After completing the system study, a system proposal is prepared by the System Analyst (who studies the system) and placed before the user. The proposed system contains the findings of the present system and recommendations to overcome the limitations and problems of the present system in the light of the user’s requirements. To describe the system study phase more analytically, we would say that system study phase passes through the following steps:
• • •
problem identification and project initiation background analysis inference or findings
(b) Feasibility Study On the basis of result of the initial study, feasibility study takes place. The feasibility study is basically the test of the proposed system in the light of its workability, meeting user’s requirements, effective use of resources and .of course, the cost effectiveness. The main goal of feasibility study is not to solve the problem but to achieve the scope. In the process of feasibility study, the cost and benefits are estimated with greater accuracy. (c) System Analysis Assuming that a new system is to be developed, the next phase is system analysis. Analysis involved a detailed study of the current system, leading to specifications of a new system. Analysis is a detailed study of various operations performed by a system and their relationships within and outside the system. During analysis, data are collected on the available files, decision points and transactions handled by the present system. Interviews, on-site observation and questionnaire are the tools used for system analysis. Using the following steps it becomes easy to draw the exact boundary of the new system under consideration:
• •
Keeping in view the problems and new requirements Workout the pros and cons including new areas of the system
All procedures, requirements must be analyzed and documented in the form of detailed data flow diagrams (DFDs), data dictionary, logical data structures and miniature specifications. System Analysis also includes subdividing of complex process involving the entire system, identification of data store and manual processes.
The main points to be discussed in system analysis are:
•
Specification of what the new system is to accomplish based on the user requirements. Functional hierarchy showing the functions to be performed by the new system and their relationship with each other. Function network which are similar to function hierarchy but they highlight the those functions which are common to more than one procedure. List of attributes of the entities - these are the data items which need to be held about each entity (record)
•
•
•
(d) System Design Based on the user requirements and the detailed analysis of a new system, the new system must be designed. This is the phase of system designing. It is a most crucial phase in the development of a system. Normally, the design proceeds in two stages:
• •
preliminary or general design Structure or detailed design
Preliminary or general design: In the preliminary or general design, the features of the new system are specified. The costs of implementing these features and the benefits to be derived are estimated. If the project is still considered to be feasible, we move to the detailed design stage. Structure or Detailed design: In the detailed design stage, computer oriented work begins in earnest. At this stage, the design of the system becomes more
structured. Structure design is a blue print of a computer system solution to a given problem having the same components and inter-relationship among the same components as the original problem. Input, output and processing specifications are drawn up in detail. In the design stage, the programming language and the platform in which the new system will run are also decided. There are several tools and techniques used for designing. These tools and techniques are:
• • • • • •
Flowchart Data flow diagram (DFDs) Data dictionary Structured English Decision table Decision tree
Each of the above tools for designing will be discussed in detailed in the next lesson. (e) Coding After designing the new system, the whole system is required to be converted into computer understanding language. Coding the new system into computer programming language does this. It is an important stage where the defined procedure is transformed into control specifications by the help of a computer language. This is also called the programming phase in which the programmer converts the program specifications into computer
instructions, which we refer as programs. The programs coordinate the data movements and control the entire process in a system. It is generally felt that the programs must be modular in nature. This helps in fast development, maintenance and future change, if required. (f) Testing Before actually implementing the new system into operations, a test run of the system is done removing all the bugs, if any. It is an important phase of a successful system. After codifying the whole programs of the system, a test plan should be developed and run on a given set of test data. The output of the test run should match the expected results. Using the test data following test run are carried out:
• •
Unit test System test
Unit test: When the programs have been coded and compiled and brought to working conditions, they must be individually tested with the prepared test data. Any undesirable happening must be noted and debugged (error corrections). System Test: After carrying out the unit test for each of the programs of the system and when errors are removed, then system test is done. At this stage the test is done on actual data. The complete system is executed on the actual data. At each stage of the execution, the results or output of the system is analysed. During the result analysis, it may be found that the outputs are not matching the expected out of the system. In such case, the
errors in the particular programs are identified and are fixed and further tested for the expected output. When it is ensured that the system is running error-free, the users are called with their own actual data so that the system could be shown running as per their requirements. (g) Implementation After having the user acceptance of the new system developed, the implementation phase begins. Implementation is the stage of a project during which theory is turned into practice. During this phase, all the programs of the system are loaded onto the user's computer. After loading the system, training of the users starts. Main topics of such type of training are:
• • • •
How to execute the package How to enter the data How to process the data (processing details) How to take out the reports
After the users are trained about the computerized system, manual working has to shift from manual to computerized working. The following two strategies are followed for running the system:
i.
Parallel run: In such run for a certain defined period, both the systems i.e. computerized and manual are executed in parallel. This strategy is helpful because of the following:
o
Manual results can be compared with the results of the computerized system. Failure of the computerized system at the early stage, does not affect the working of the organization, because the manual system continues to work, as it used to do.
o
i.
Pilot run: In this type of run, the new system is installed in parts. Some part of the new system is installed first and executed successfully for considerable time period. When the results are found satisfactory then only other parts are implemented. This strategy builds the confidence and the errors are traced easily.
(h) Maintenance Maintenance is necessary to eliminate errors in the system during its working life and to tune the system to any variations in its working environment. It has been seen that there are always some errors found in the system that must be noted and corrected. It also means the review of the system from time to time. The review of the system is done for:
• • •
knowing the full capabilities of the system knowing the required changes or the additional requirements studying the performance
If a major change to a system is needed, a new project may have to be set up to carry out the change. The new project will then proceed through all the above life cycle phases.
Q2. Write a short note on the following: (i) Knowledge Management System (ii) Data, Information and Knowledge Flow in Business Process (iii) Business Continuity Planning
(i) KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Knowledge Management System (KM System) refers to a system for managing knowledge in organizations for supporting creation, capture, storage and dissemination of information. It can comprise a part (neither necessary nor sufficient) of a Knowledge Management initiative. The idea of a KM system is to enable employees to have ready access to the organization's documented base of facts, sources of information, and solutions. For example a typical claim justifying the creation of a KM system might run something like this: an engineer could know the metallurgical composition of an alloy that reduces sound in gear systems. Sharing this information organization wide can lead to more effective engine design and it could also lead to ideas for new or improved equipment. A KM system could be any of the following:
1. Document
based
i.e.
any
technology
that
permits
creation/management/sharing of formatted documents such as Lotus Notes, web, distributed databases etc.
2. Ontology/Taxonomy
based:
these
are
similar
to
document
technologies in the sense that a system of terminologies (i.e. ontology)
are used to summarize the document e.g. Author, Sub, Organization etc. as in DAML & other XML based ontologism
3. Based on AI technologies which use a customized representation
scheme to represent the problem domain.
4. Provide network maps of the organization showing the flow of
communication between entities and individuals
5. Increasingly social computing tools are being deployed to provide a
more organic approach to creation of a KM system. KMS systems deal with information (although Knowledge Management as a discipline may extend beyond the information centric aspect of any system) so they are a class of information system and may build on, or utilize other information sources. Distinguishing features of a KMS can include: 1. Purpose: a KMS will have an explicit Knowledge Management objective of some type such as collaboration, sharing good practice or the like. 2. Context: One perspective on KMS would see knowledge is information that is meaningfully organized, accumulated and embedded in a context of creation and application. 3. Processes: KMS are developed to support and enhance knowledgeintensive processes, tasks or projects of e.g., creation, construction, identification, organization, capturing, linking, acquisition, selection, valuation, visualization, structuring, formalization,
transfer, distribution, retention, maintenance, refinement, revision, evolution, accessing, retrieval and last but not least the application of knowledge, also called the knowledge life cycle.
4. Participants: Users can play the roles of active, involved participants in knowledge networks and communities fostered by KMS, although this is not necessarily the case. KMS designs are held to reflect that knowledge is developed collectively and that the “distribution” of knowledge leads to its continuous change, reconstruction and application in different contexts, by different participants with differing backgrounds and experiences. 5. Instruments: KMS support KM instruments, e.g., the capture, creation and sharing of the codifiable aspects of experience, the creation of corporate knowledge directories, taxonomies or ontologies, expertise locators, skill management systems, collaborative filtering and handling of interests used to connect people, the creation and fostering of communities or knowledge networks. A KMS offers integrated services to deploy KM instruments for networks of participants, i.e. active knowledge workers, in knowledge-intensive business processes along the entire knowledge life cycle. KMS can be used for a wide range of cooperative, collaborative, adhocracy and hierarchy communities, virtual organizations, societies and other virtual networks, to manage media contents; activities, interactions and work-flows purposes; projects; works, networks, departments, privileges, roles, participants and other active users in order to extract and generate new knowledge and to enhance, leverage and transfer in new outcomes of knowledge providing new services using new formats and interfaces and different communication channels. The term KMS can be associated to Open Source Software, and Open Standards, Open Protocols and Open Knowledge licenses, initiatives and policies.
(ii) Business continuity planning
Business continuity planning life cycle Business continuity planning (BCP) is “planning which identifies the organization's exposure to internal and external threats and synthesizes hard and soft assets to provide effective prevention and recovery for the organization, whilst maintaining competitive advantage and value system integrity”.[1] It is also called Business continuity & Resiliency planning (BCRP). The logistical plan used in BCP is called a business continuity plan. The intended effect of BCP is to ensure business continuity, which is an ongoing state or methodology governing how business is conducted. In plain language, BCP is working out how to stay in business in the event of disaster. Typical incidents include local events like building fires, regional incidents like earthquakes or floods, or national incidents like pandemic illnesses. However, it is not limited to just that. Any event that could cause the potential for loss of business should be considered, including any event that the business is dependent on, such as loss of source of supply, loss of critical infrastructure (a major piece of machinery or
computing/network resource), or the result of theft or vandalism. As such, risk management must be incorporated as part of BCP. BCP may be a part of an organizational learning effort that helps reduce operational risk. This process may be integrated with improving security and corporate reputation risk management practices. In December 2006, the British Standards Institution (BSI) released a new independent standard for BCP — BS 25999-1. Prior to the introduction of BS 25999, BCP professionals relied on BSI information security standard BS 7799, which only peripherally addressed BCP to improve an organization's information security compliance. BS 25999's applicability extends to organizations of all types, sizes, and missions whether governmental or private, profit or non-profit, large or small, or industry sector. In 2007, the BSI published the second part, BS 25999-2 "Specification for Business Continuity Management", that specifies requirements for implementing, operating and improving a documented Business Continuity Management System (BCMS). In 2004, the United Kingdom enacted the Civil Contingencies Act 2004, a statute that instructs all emergency services and local authorities to actively prepare and plan for emergencies. Local authorities also have the legal obligation under this act to actively lead promotion of business continuity practices in their respective geographical areas A completed BCP cycle results in a formal printed manual available for reference before, during, and after disruptions. Its purpose is to reduce
adverse stakeholder impacts determined by both the disruption's scope (who and what it affects to what extent) and duration (e.g., hours, days, months). Measurable business impact analysis (BIA) "zones" -- areas in which hazards and threats reside—include civil, economic, natural, technical, secondary and subsequent. For the purposes of this article, the term disaster will be used to represent natural disaster, human-made disaster, and disruptions. Before January 1, 2000, governments anticipated computer failures, called the Y2k problem, in important public utility infrastructures like banking, power, telecommunication, health and financial industries. Since 1983, regulatory agencies like the American Bankers Association and Banking Administration Institute (BAI) required their supporting members to exercise operational continuity practices (later supported by more formal BCP manuals) that protect the public interest. Newer regulations were often based on formalized standards defined under ISO/IEC 17799 or BS 7799. Both regulatory and global business focus on BCP arguably waned after the problem-free Y2K rollover. Some believe this lax attitude ended September 11th 2001, when simultaneous terrorist attacks devastated downtown New York City and changed the 'worst case scenario' paradigm for business continuity planning.[2] BCP methodology is scalable for an organization of any size and complexity. Even though the methodology has roots in regulated industries, any type of organization may create a BCP manual, and arguably every organization should have one in order to ensure the organization's longevity.
Evidence that firms do not invest enough time and resources into BCP preparations are evident in disaster survival statistics. Fires permanently close 44% of the business affected.[3] In the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, 150 businesses out of 350 affected failed to survive the event. Conversely, the firms affected by the September 11 attacks with welldeveloped and tested BCP manuals were back in business within days.[4] A BCP manual for a small organization may be simply a printed manual stored safely away from the primary work location, containing the names, addresses, and phone numbers for crisis management staff, general staff members, clients, and vendors along with the location of the offsite data backup storage media, copies of insurance contracts, and other critical materials necessary for organizational survival. At its most complex, a BCP manual may outline a secondary work site, technical requirements and readiness, regulatory reporting requirements, work recovery measures, the means to reestablish physical records, the means to establish a new supply chain, or the means to establish new production centers. Firms should ensure that their BCP manual is realistic and easy to use during a crisis. As such, BCP sits alongside crisis management and disaster recovery planning and is a part of an organization's overall risk management. The development of a BCP manual can have five main phases: 1. Analysis
2. Solution design 3. Implementation 4. Testing and organization acceptance 5. Maintenance.
(iii) DATA, INFORMTION AND KNOWLEDGE Business related knowledge has been identified as the single most important factor ultimately defining organizational competitiveness (Druker 1989; kock, McQueen and baker 1996) new product design and delivery has led to an increase in the demand for knowledge workers and in increase in the knowledge-intensive labour of component (Boland and Tenkasi 1995). The same phenomenon, combined with the emergence of automation technologies, has been argued as having forced organization into expanding their information processing and service departments, while at the same time considerably reducing the number of material handling workers. As (Durker 1993) point out: In 1980, about 9 out of 10 workers made and moved things; today, that is down to one out of 5. The other 4 out of 5 are knowledge people or service workers. These workers converser on phone, write report attending meeting. But have organizational practices adapted to these practices? A number of proponent of contemporary managerial approach would be argue that “yes, we are moving towards knowledge-oriented practices.” This move, however, has apparently relied mostly on either opinions professed by management guru or abstract theoretical speculations and very little on the analysis of actual practices and how these practices can be improved within the new knowledge-oriented business context.
Knowledge, Information and Data The concept of knowledge, information and data are closely related. Althougth distinct, these three abstract concepts are often confused. As common place as the confusion of the data and information, is the confusion of knowledge and information, nurtured even by prominent thinks, who themselves pioneered the idea of information-based organizations. For the purpose of this study, we have defined these three concepts as follow (Kock, McQueen and Baker 1996). Data is a carrier of knowledge and information, a means through which knowledge and information can be stored and transferred. Both information and knowledge are communicated through data, and by means of data storage and transfer devices and systems. In this sense, piece of data only becomes information or knowledge when it is interpreted by its receiver (Kock, McQueen and Baker 1996). In the same sense, information and knowledge held by a person can only be communicated to another person after they are encoded as data. Printed paper and computer disks are examples of data storage devices. A corporate e-mail and the international airmail systems are examples of and storage and transfer systems. Information: While information is descriptive, that is, it relates to the past and the present, knowledge is eminently predictive, that is, it provides the basis for the prediction of the future with certain degree of certainty based on information about the past and their present (Dubin 1976 and Camerer and Johnson 1991). From this perspective, statements of the type “the aluminum into the smelter will be smelted in 30 minutes” convey knowledge. This occurs whether these statements are true or false, since the truth of knowledge and information is relative –
Business Process Business processes have been traditionally defined as sets of interrelated activities, or work flows (Harrington 1994), (White and Fischer 1994). We understand, however, that the scope of the business process construct can be broadened by considering elements associated with its activities in a way that turns the business process construct into a rich unit of analysis in organizational studies. In this sense a business process can also be seen as comprising the functions (carried out by organizational staff) and tools involved in the execution of the activities in a process. Moreover, the business process concept can be seen as comprising the product flow between activities, and the suppliers and customers of the process. This generic view of business processes is illustrated through the “receive materials” process of a hypothetical chimney manufacture, shown figure 1 The process shown in the figure comprises four functions, namely acquisitions assistant, assistant, quality inspector, stock assistant and sales assistant. Phone, e-mail, quality inspection equipment, mail, fax, internal mail, fork lift, and computer stock system are tools used in the process. Aluminum tubes, accessory parts, delivery form, materials receipt, replacement order, quality inspection report, and stock data are products – some of them are data and some material products – that flow between functions in the process. Finally, Aluminum & Co. and Chimney Accessories &Co. are suppliers of the process, whereas the production manager of the chimney manufacturer is the customer of the process.
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