Description
The purpose of this study is to examine if an evoke set exists for pleasure travelers based
on the past and future travel destinations of their peer groups
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Going where the Joneses go: understanding how others influence travel decision-
making
Russell R. Currie Franz Wesley Paul Sutherland
Article information:
To cite this document:
Russell R. Currie Franz Wesley Paul Sutherland, (2008),"Going where the J oneses go: understanding how
others influence travel decision-making", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research,
Vol. 2 Iss 1 pp. 12 - 24
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Going where the Joneses go:
understanding how others
in?uence travel decision-making
Russell R. Currie and Franz Wesley
University of British Columbia, Kelowna, Canada, and
Paul Sutherland
King’s Christian School, Salmon Arm, Canada
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this study is to examine if an evoke set exists for pleasure travelers based
on the past and future travel destinations of their peer groups.
Design/methodology/approach – Researchers distributed a questionnaire to university students
enrolled in the same program. The literature review suggests four ways in which peers can in?uence
individuals: not to travel in?uence, direct in?uence, indirect in?uence, and shared goal of future
destination in?uence. Results from the respondents provide data for correlation analysis based on
these four types of peer in?uence.
Findings – The ?ndings support previous researchers demonstrating a strong in?uence of peer
reference groups on service purchase decisions, speci?cally tourism destination choice. Given a
relatively small sample population, all four types of peer reference found support in the data.
Research limitations/implications – Limitations are related to sample size and the homogeneity
of the sample. Because, the respondents were in the same life stage, their peer groups were similar to
all. Consequently, no comparative analysis speci?cally identifying peers and the degree of proximity
at different stages of life was possible.
Originality/value – Very few studies focus speci?cally on the nature of peer group in?uence on
service purchase behavior, related speci?cally with travel destination decision-making. By recognizing
travel patterns of individuals and understanding the in?uences causing these patterns, tourism
marketers and planners have a greater understanding of the mechanisms of peer in?uence in pleasure
travel destination choice.
Keywords Tourism, International travel, Consumer behaviour, Leisure activities
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Given the competitiveness of the tourism industry, understanding the traveler
decision-making process is of great interest to marketers. One aspect of this process is
the in?uence of proximal relationships on destination choice. While numerous studies
examine group in?uence on product purchasing decisions, less time has been spent
on services, and even less on tourism. This lack of attention occurs despite the
recognition that informal information channels are a powerful force in service
purchase decision-making (Bansal and Voyer, 2000). Reviewing the literature that
examines the in?uence of others on travel decision-making ?nds the use of numerous
constructs for analyzing this in?uence, two of which are closely related: the reference
group construct and peer group in?uence. Research on peer in?uence and its affect on
pleasure travel patterns is important as peers have a strong in?uence on travel
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1750-6182.htm
IJCTHR
2,1
12
Received September 2006
Revised November 2006
Accepted June 2007
International Journal of Culture,
Tourism and Hospitality Research
Vol. 2 No. 1, 2008
pp. 12-24
qEmerald Group Publishing Limited
1750-6182
DOI 10.1108/17506180810856112
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decisions ( Burch, 1965). With a greater understanding of the mechanisms of peer group
in?uence, marketing strategists in the tourism industry would be better equipped to
more effectively harness peer in?uence for the promotion of products and services.
Peers in?uence the attitudes and norms of behavior acceptable to individuals;
therefore, individuals often comply to group decisions and ideals in order to gain
acceptance (McNeil, 1969). Few studies examine, the impact of peer in?uence on tourist
motivations for choosing certain destinations while dismissing others. The purpose of
this study is to determine if the evoke set for pleasure travelers is based onthe past travel
destinations of their peer groups, the future travel destination of their peer groups, or no
relation to peer groups’ past or future destinations. The research speci?cally focuses on
peer in?uence and its affects on individuals’ pleasure travel patterns and destinations.
Furthermore, previous research claims peers are often primary and second hand sources
of information that individuals reference when choosing a pleasure travel destination,
basing past experiences of peers to measure the value of a decision (Ajzen and Driver,
1991). This study will determine what peer group factors in?uence individuals’ evoke
sets in choosing pleasure travel destinations. Results obtained froma survey conducted
with university students provide insight into the in?uence of peers and group dynamics
in determining pleasure travel destination. Consequently, this research contributes to
the literature that enables businesses in the tourism industry to establish effective
strategies for reaching target markets.
Literature
Reference group construct
Crutch?eld (1955) argues that, there are two types of people within a given group: there
are those who lead and there are those who follow. Those who follow have “less self
insight, less spontaneity and productive originality” (Dalton, 1961, p. 162). While, this
black-and-white perspective fails to consider the complexities of group dynamics and
social interactions, the principle illustrates the force exerted on individuals’ choices by
proximal relationships. Those persons or groups, whether real or imaginary, that
serves as a point of reference and is in?uential in individuals’ attitudes, choices and
beliefs is a reference group (Moutinho, 1987). Some examples of reference groups
include family, peers, work colleagues, friends, religious and ethnic groups, formal
social and leisure groups, trade unions, neighborhoods, teachers, and sports and
entertainment ?gures (Childers and Rao, 1992; Khan and Khan, 2005; Moutinho, 1987).
Considering the considerable power of informal information channels in search and
purchase behavior, marketers in the tourism industry could assume that some people
may choose to replicate vacation experiences enjoyed previously by friends or peers
because they would rather follow the advice and opinions of others than adopt a more
independent approach or risk making a wrong decision.
The literature on reference group in?uence is extensive and covers a range of
disciplines from sociology to psychology to marketing and consumer behavior (Hsu
et al., 2006). Some recent works examine in particular the social nature of consumer
decisions with implications for self-conceptualization, cultural identity, and gender
differences (Ariely and Levav, 2000; Bagozzi, 2000; Briley and Wyer, 2002; Escalas and
Bettman, 2005; Kongsompong, 2006). As Hsu et al. (2006) note in their literature review
of the topic, reference group in?uences vary across cultural, social and sectoral lines.
Product types also have a bearing on the nature of reference group’s in?uence, for
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example privately versus publicly consumed goods, luxuries versus necessities (Hsu
et al., 2006). The literature on reference group in?uence for consumer behavior, more
extensive for product purchasing than services, offers a number of different
classi?cations for reference group in?uences detailed below:
.
Informational. In?uence exerted on consumers who, faced with uncertainty, seek
credible sources that can inform their decision.
.
Utilitarian. Individuals’ seeking to gain rewards or avoid punishment by
complying with the expectations of others.
.
Value-expressive. Individuals require a psychological association with a group or
person, and thus seek to emulate the reference group or accept the group’s
positions out of a positive feeling towards the group.
.
Re?ected appraisal. An individual’s self-evaluation of beliefs, actions, and
behaviors inferred from other persons through direct interaction.
.
Comparative appraisal. Self-evaluation through the observation of others’
behavior, often from a distance.
.
Informative. Individuals accept information from others as evidence of reality.
.
Normative 1. Individuals conform to the expectations of others.
.
Normative 2. In?uence on general values and a basic code of behavior.
.
Comparative. Groups serve as points of reference and in?uence speci?c attitudes
and behavior.
Referring to the earlier work of Park and Lessig (1977), Bearden and Etzel (1982)
identify several types of in?uence: informational, utilitarian, and value-expressive.
Informational in?uence refers to in?uence exerted on consumers who, faced with
uncertainty, seek credible sources that can inform their decision. Utilitarian reference
group in?uence applies to individuals’ seeking to gain rewards or avoid punishment by
complying with the expectations of others. Value-expressive in?uence denotes those
who require a psychological association with a group or person, and thus seek to
emulate the reference group or accept the group’s positions out of a positive feeling
towards the group (Bearden and Etzel, 1982). Their study uses these three types of
in?uence and their ?ndings and methods form the foundation for a number of other
studies in this discipline (Hsu et al., 2006).
Becherer et al. (1982, p. 269) conduct a study in consumer behavior to examine the
issues of “if, when and for whom group in?uence is relevant.” Building on the works of
others (Festinger, 1954; Jones and Gerard, 1967), they identify two processes related to
group in?uence; re?ected appraisal is an individual’s self-evaluation of beliefs, actions,
and behaviors inferred from other persons through direct interaction; and comparative
appraisal is self-evaluation through the observation of others’ behavior, often from a
distance. The former requires personal interaction while the latter does not. Another
aspect of their study is the degree to which an individual’s behavior is a result of the
social environment or alternatively, internal forces, and their ?ndings indicated a
continuum dependent on an individual’s situational or dispositional orientation. They
conclude that social comparison does affect consumer choices among co-oriented peers,
regardless of which orientation, and that consumers will avoid products rated
“unsatisfactory by friends” (Becherer et al., 1982, p. 278).
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Childers and Rao (1992) review the literature on reference group in?uence on
consumer decisions, noting that the scholarship has long recognized the in?uence of
groups exerted on individuals’ purchasing decisions and has re?ned and clari?ed the
reference group construct over time. Their study distinguishes two reference groups,
familial and peer-based, and predicts that these two groups carry differing degrees
of in?uence. Basing their discussion on the seminal work of Bearden and Etzel
(1982), Childers and Rao (1992, p. 199) note that “socially proximal reference groups
allow for a signi?cant amount of interaction while socially distant referents allow for
relatively little or no direct interaction.” They formulate their study on the claim that
among socially proximal reference groups, ?ne distinctions for the purpose of
analysis can be made between familial and peer-based groups (Childers and
Rao, 1992).
Khan and Khan (2005) report a study on the purchasing decisions of designer label
clothing among the youth of Malaysia, with special consideration for gender
differences. They argue that, the most accepted reference group in?uences in the
literature are informative and normative social in?uence:
. . . whereas normative social in?uence refers to the tendency to conformto the expectations of
others, informational social in?uence refers to the tendency to accept information from others
as evidence of reality (Khan and Khan, 2005, p. 33).
They note that the credibility, attractiveness, and expertise of the reference group and
product conspicuousness are well-documented determinants of reference group
in?uence. Referents are a valuable source of information “perceived as instrumental to
the solution of a problem, or to reinforce established beliefs” (Khan and Khan, 2005,
p. 33). Moutinho (1987) articulates another classi?cation for group in?uences.
Normative groups are those that exert in?uence on general values and a basic code of
behavior, while comparative groups are those that “serve as points of reference and
in?uence speci?c attitudes and behavior” (Moutinho, 1987, p. 8).
The reference group construct has indeed undergone numerous re?nements,
clari?cations, and expansions (Bearden and Etzel, 1982). Despite the various
classi?cations and theoretical frameworks, the array of articles suggests agreement
that the construct has direct implications for marketers and academics (Becherer et al.,
1982; Childers and Rao, 1992). Hsu et al. (2006) offers a literature review speci?c to
referent group in?uence as it pertains to tourist destination decision-making. They note
that while limited work analyzes reference group in?uence for the services sector, for
tourism, some studies focus on information search strategies but none examine how
reference groups in?uence destination choice. The literature would suggest, however,
that further research on this topic would enhance understanding of vacation
decision-making.
Peer group in?uence
While the research of Hsu et al. (2006) examines three reference groups, the in?uence of
peer groups speci?cally is especially dominant in in?uencing purchase decisions. Peer
groups play an active role in people’s lives, especially in the adolescent years (Khan
and Khan, 2005; Pizer and Travers, 1975) but also in later stages. The literature
outlines the reasons for individuals conforming to peer groups, and the mechanisms of
this in?uence in the context of tourism destination choice.
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According to the literature, individuals choose to conform to a peer group for a
number of reasons. Peer reference groups help set and maintain standards and
attitudes. Sherif and Sherif suggest that:
. . . those groups in which he wants to be counted as an individual which include the
individuals whose opinions make a difference for him, whose standards and goals are his, are
his reference group (as cited in Clark, 1972, pp. 11-12).
Knowles and Knowles (1972, p. 44) state, “that on the whole, the broader the
participation among members of a group the deeper the interest and involvement will
be.” The more people interact with others in a group and share in the same experiences,
the more likely individuals will feel a belonging, leading to cohesion and uniformity of
the group. These groups often include people of the same age. Mill (1990) uses the term
generational in?uence to describe peer groups who are of similar age and share similar
beliefs and interests. Baby boomers, early baby boomers, and baby boomlets are
examples of such groups (Mill, 1990). Peer in?uence establishes the attitudes and
norms of behavior acceptable to the group.
Another reason to comply with a peer reference group is the pressure of unanimity.
Single individuals will often join the majority to avoid ridicule and rejection (Ajzen and
Driver, 1991). This is especially true for those who have a low self-esteem or may not
feel accepted within the group. Individuals who become involved in new reference
groups are often prepared to comply to group decisions and ideals in order to gain
acceptance ( McNeil, 1969, p. 179). Burch (1965, p. 612) states “expressiveness by its
transitory nature is dependent upon immediate recognition by a jury of peers.” If
individuals want to maintain their position among peers, they must abide by the codes
and norms of the group. If individuals do not respond to the demands of peers, the
individuals may feel removed and distant from the group because of their
non-compliance. Becherer et al. (1982) note that individuals vary in their tendencies
to rely on the advice of friends and peers.
Conformity also occurs when individuals acknowledge experts within the group
(Aronson, 1988). This is evident “even when behavior is not so subjective and the
unanimous majority is only a single other person, people can be strongly in?uenced by
authority and expertise” ( Reitz, 1977, p. 499). Therefore, if members of the group seem
knowledgeable in a given area, individuals are more susceptible to believe these
persons and take their advice. Guerin (1995, p. 383) notes, “basic properties of social
consequences and social accountability mediate the reported use of in?uence tactics
between individuals and groups, friends and strangers.” Peers have the ability to
in?uence individuals in decision-making, and this may extend into pleasure travel
tourism where an individual’s peers have had prior experience at a given destination.
The mechanisms of peer in?uence
Peer groups greatly affect travel in?uences through direct social interaction often
becoming the primary and second hand sources of information (Ajzen and Driver,
1991). Mieczkowski (1990, p. 180) states “tourists establish their images of destination
on the basis of less biased sources like opinions of friends and relatives who visited
these destinations.” Once friends and relatives have visited a destination, information
is passed on to individuals through WOM ( Mieczkowski, 1990). Friends also provide a
more realistic understanding of a destination than tourist-marketing literature, which
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can seem inaccurate or misleading compared to the perceived unbiased opinion of the
peer group ( Mieczkowski, 1990). This is more likely in a service product like tourism,
which can be dif?cult to evaluate (Bansal and Voyer, 2000).
Lansing (1968) suggests, that when a friend migrates to another country, a person is
more likely to visit that country because of their friendship. Statistics indicate that
people on average move after ?ve years of being in one place ( Mill, 1990). In order to
maintain friendships, relatives and peers will plan vacations to meet people in a certain
destination ( Mill, 1990). Therefore, peers have a strong pull on the travel patterns of
individuals, particularly in relation to international countries.
One aspect of the evaluation of leisure activities involves control beliefs, including the
attitudes and perceptions of an activity based on participation in the past (Ajzen and
Driver, 1991). But control beliefs are also subjected to the information gathered fromthe
experiences of friends and peers (Ajzen and Driver, 1991). Moutinho (1987) states that for
tourism, reference groups in?uence individuals’ destination choice by bringing
awareness of a particular destination or service and through direct communication of
experiences. In addition, Mitchell and Greatorex (1993) note that the high-perceived risk
factors of service purchasing stems from the heightened uncertainty in service
purchasing. One risk reliever wouldbe the positive feedback fromtrusted referents, such
as friends and colleagues. The impact of peer experience on control beliefs demonstrates
that the in?uence of peers can affect the decisions individuals make involving pleasure
travel destinations. Ajzen and Driver (1991, p. 201) con?rm the assumption that peer
in?uence has an affect on individuals’ activity choices:
People were found to engage in a certain recreational activity to the extent that they
associated favorable outcomes with the activity, they saw their friends and families as
approving of the activity, and they believed themselves to be in possession of the resources
required to perform the activity.
Normative beliefs also in?uence an individual’s destination choices because the beliefs
are concerned with the reference group’s level of agreement with the activity or
destination choice (Ajzen and Driver, 1991). If a reference group disapproves of an
experience, the likelihood of individuals participating in that experience is low.
Therefore:
. . . only when respondents uniformly believe that a given referent thinks they should perform
the behavior would motivation to comply be expected to show a positive correlation with
frequency of performance (Ajzen and Driver, 1991, p. 199).
Schul and Crompton (1983) argue that, a travel destination is often chosen because of
its unfamiliarity with the general public. From this perspective, prior experience by
one’s peers would detract from an individual choosing that particular destination.
Schul and Crompton (1983, p. 26) believe that:
. . . this emphasis on novelty implies that for many there is little desire to return to a
previously visited destination, no matter how successful a previous vacation at that
destination may have been.
The direct in?uence of peer groups on tourist motivations for selecting certain
destinations while dismissing others has not received much attention. Nevertheless,
the literature suggests that various travel in?uences such as beliefs and attitudes
established through peer group in?uences affect pleasure travel destination choices.
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This is an important area of research (Crandall and Lewko, 1976). The purpose of this
paper, understanding the in?uence of others on destination choice, “is essential to
recreation planners and administrators who formulate and provide recreation services
with political, economic and environmental constraints” (Romsa and Hoffman, 1980,
pp. 321-22).
Mercer (1971) states, that individuals experience a recollection phase where they
will evaluate and assess an activity previously performed. If the activity provided a
positive experience, it is most likely that the individual will participate in it again
( Mercer, 1971). No matter what the outcome of the experience might be, individuals’
perceptions and attitudes will greatly in?uence future pleasure travel destinations.
Therefore, peoples’ travel behavior can be understood as a “continual temporal and
spatial learning or adjustment process, perhaps settling into a habitual pattern for
awhile and the readjusting to a new pattern as circumstances change” (Mercer, 1971,
p. 271). Summarizing the literature on peer group in?uence on travel destination choice,
peers in?uence individuals in four ways:
(1) Peer in?uence causes an individual not to travel.
(2) Peer in?uence is a replicating in?uence in which the individual chooses to visit
the past destination of the peer in?uencer. Second-hand information will
in?uence individuals’ choices to travel to the destination previously visited by
peers.
(3) Peer in?uence through a goal shared to travel together to the future destination
chosen by the in?uencer. This in?uence often occurs when individuals travel to
visit friends or family who move to a foreign destination.
(4) Peer in?uence as an in-direct in?uence. The peer has in?uenced the individual
to travel but not in relation to the past or future destination of the in?uencer.
This type may occur when individuals are interested in traveling to a
destination alone, without the presence of friends or family.
These four types of in?uence form the basis of the survey study.
Research methods
Often individuals are often asked to re?ect on the basic reasons for their travels
without fully analyzing the roles groups and peers play in their decisions. This study is
purposely designed to allow participants consideration of the in?uence friends have on
decision-making as it pertains to international travel choices and to express their
opinions regarding peer in?uence. The researchers conducted a survey to determine if
an evoke set exists for pleasure travelers and if it is based on the past travel
destinations of their peer groups, the future travel destination of their peer groups, or
no relation to peer groups’ past or future destinations. The sample group for the
study’s questionnaire came from students attending university; all enrolled in the same
undergraduate program, consisting of students from years one through four. All
students within the department who had an e-mail account received a questionnaire,
totaling 550 surveys sent. Taking approximately ?ve minutes to complete, the survey
consisted of 24 questions. Basing the survey design on the four ways peer groups
in?uence travel destination choice, the questionnaire asked students to document
information pertaining to their past and present travel choices as well as their
perceptions of the in?uence of peers, family, and organizations on these choices.
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Questions addressed the individual’s relationship to peers and how these relationships
in?uenced their decision-making. Other questions involved past and future travel
destinations and individual’s attitudes and perceptions of them. Several questions were
open-ended, and those with common themes provided the researchers with more
accurate results when analyzing the data.
The researchers set a deadline so that data collection and analysis could take place,
so inevitably they had to omit from the analysis those surveys that came after the
deadline. Analysis of the information determined simple correlations among the
participants’ past travel experiences and future pleasure travel patterns and
destinations. The results indicate the mechanisms by which peer groups in?uence
travel destination choice.
Results
Nearly, 100 students replied to the questionnaire and returned their responses. Owing
to the lack of third and fourth year students participating in the survey, the researchers
removed surveys from this population from the data analysis. Only the responses of
?rst and second year students are used in the analysis. In total, 73 questionnaires met
the criteria for the purposes of this study. Respondents to the questionnaire included
30 males (41 percent) and 43 females (59 percent); similar to the demographics of the
university population.
For those students who had previously traveled outside Canada, most went on the
recommendation of others. Signi?cantly, for the male participants, more than double
went on the recommendation of others than those that did not. The majority of
respondents visited a foreign destination for the purpose of pleasure. Education was
the second highest reason for travel followed by travel for a sports event of some kind,
and 17 participants traveled to their destination choice because of culture. Only a very
small segment of the population traveled for business purposes, similarly the number
of those who visited a foreign destination for religious purposes.
The majority of the respondents had at one time traveled to the USA. The next most
visited international destination was Europe, followed by South America, then
Australia and Asia. Not one respondent claims to have visited the continent of Africa,
though some selected Africa to be a future destination choice.
Regarding future travel destination choices, Europe and Australia are the
most popular future destinations. The rest of the destination choices received less
consideration, as only 21 percent of respondents selected Asia, followed by Africa and
South America. Only 11 participants would make the USA a future travel choice.
A difference exists, in terms of perceptions of peer conformity to future travel
destinations, between the male and female students. The majority of males think that
the future travel destination choice of their friends would differ from their own. The
female response to the same issue, however, is evenly dispersed; half of the female
participants think their friends have the same international destination choice as their
own. Both male and female students would rather travel to a different destination than
their friends. Some participants reported whether it is the same or different destination
as their peers makes no difference. No signi?cant difference existed in the male
population regarding the importance of destination novelty, but a majority of female
respondents feel it was somewhat important.
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The impact of peers’ stories about their vacation experiences was a signi?cant
in?uence on travel choices. Of the 73 respondents, 60 students are motivated to have
the same experience as their peers after hearing about their travels. An interesting
comment was made by one participant who clari?es her answer by stating “[ I ] would
n’t want to do the same things [my peers] did but I would want to see the same
country.” In relation to hearing peers discuss their travels, the students all expressed
emotional responses of some kind. The majority of the respondents state that they feel
curious. Among males, jealousy was a stronger emotion than among the female
respondents when listening to peers’ travel stories. Female participants indicate a
stronger feeling of being excited about peers’ stories than the male participants.
The results indicate that for the student population, information gathered from
peers is more in?uential than travel agencies and books. The majority of the
respondents feel that travel agencies and books are not really as important as the
information they could gain from peers. Several participants stated that travel agency
information is absolutely not important and only one respondent, a male, stated that
travel agency information and books is absolutely more important than what they
could gather from peers.
Discussion and conclusion
The results re?ect the growing popularity and accessibility of the tourismindustry and
con?rm previous research regarding travel purposes and motives. International travel
is a popular activity amongst the student population as every respondent to the
questionnaire stated that they have traveled outside of Canada and plan to travel
internationally in the future. In agreement with Lansing (1968) and Pearce (1987) the
respondents have different motives for traveling internationally, but most students
travel for pleasure and to visit family/friends. Pleasure travel allows individuals to
choose from a vast array of destination choices ( Witt et al., 1995). As stated by Pearce
(1982), many people travel for the simple fact that they want to see the world. This
motivation is evident from the respondents’ list of previously traveled destinations and
where they would like to travel in the future. Not including Africa, students in this
sample population have traveled every continent, while every region on earth
was mentioned as a potential destination to visit in the future. Destinations such as
Patagonia, Argentina, South Africa, Antarctica, Scotland and Indonesia were very
popular choices in the data collected. Besides, pleasure motives, most respondents have
traveled internationally for the purpose of visiting family/friends. Individuals often
travel to countries that have similar cultural and historical backgrounds (Mill, 1990).
Next to the USA, Europe was the second highest area that the respondents visited
(24 percent). With the majority of respondents having ancestral roots to either the USA
or Europe, it is not surprising that students are traveling to these speci?c destinations.
Even within a relatively small sample population, the results support all four
methods of peer in?uence. Cleverdon and Edwards (1990) argue that society now
perceives international travel as a needed commodity and it should become a common
practice for most people. In agreement with this claim, all respondents thought they
would travel internationally within the next ten years. The majority of respondents
from both sexes envisioned themselves visiting the international destination of their
choice within the next ?ve years. This result shows that peer in?uence to not travel
was not demonstrated in this study.
IJCTHR
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The results strongly accept the replicating in?uence of peers on destination choice.
First, respondents recognized this in?uence on their past travel patterns. The majority
of participants in the questionnaire stated that someone recommended a past travel
destination choice. Secondly, peers also in?uence the respondents’ plans for future
destinations. The majority of the respondents became curious when listening to peers
talk about their past travel experiences. Out of 73, 60 students stated that they are
motivated by peers to do the same experience after hearing about peers’ travels. This
response con?rms a certain interest in the activities of their peers and suggests that
these respondents perceive peers to be an authority or expert on a topic, thus
conforming to their actions. Social interaction relies on communication between
individuals and is a powerful tool in in?uencing others (Festinger et al., 1967). Peer
groups are an important source of primary and second-hand information for
individuals when deciding travel destination choice (Ajzen and Driver, 1991).
Several respondents stated that they do not want to travel to the same future
destination choice as their peers but this desire does not detract from their plans for
future travel. This response demonstrates an indirect in?uence in which the peer has
in?uenced the individual to travel but not in relation to the past or future destination of
the in?uencer. Although peers can have an in?uence on individuals, it does not mean
the in?uence is always positive. Schul and Crompton (1983) stated that, a travel
destination is often chosen because it is unfamiliar to individuals. The novelty is lost
once peers travel to the destination in mind, resulting in little desire to visit the
destination, no matter how wonderful others may build it up. The majority from both
sexes revealed that personal discovery of a foreign destination is somewhat important.
Travel may offer individuals a door to freedom to express themselves and do what
they want even when this choice con?icts with pressures of acceptance and
compliance. From both sexes, a majority indicated they had different future destination
choices than their peers. One assumption of the nature of peer in?uence would be that
of compliance and conformity; if peer in?uence were as strong as it was thought, the
vast majority of respondents would travel to the same future destination choices as
their peers. Results from the questionnaire, however, suggest that a strong yet in-direct
in?uence of peers, coupled with the novelty motivation of destination choice, leads to
differing future travel patterns.
The fourth in?uence is goal-shared, where the tourist travels to a destination chosen
by a peer. Almost half of respondents indicated they would like to travel to the same
future destination chosen by the in?uencer. This choice suggests the desire to travel in
order to visit peers who have moved or are visiting a foreign destination.
According to Nickerson (1996) there are three segments that make up the travel
market. These segments consist of “family and individual travel, group travel and
incentive travel” ( p. 251). The results from the questionnaire demonstrate that family
and individual travel is the largest market traveled by students. Group travel, either
travel with friends or an organization, was the second largest market traveled by
respondents. Although “family and individual travel” was the highest travel market
identi?ed, when travel with family and with friends was analyzed separately, the
numbers participating in these two categories were very close, 49 and 43 percent,
respectively. These results may con?rm Mieczkowski’s (1990) ?nding that there is an
increase in teenagers traveling with peers, separate from family.
Going where the
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Results from the questionnaire also provided insight into the value individuals place
on the knowledge and advice of peers. The majority of respondents stated travel
information fromtravel guides and agencies was somewhat more important to themthan
information from friends. This demonstrates that peer in?uence has limited control
over individuals’ decision-making and that other in?uences need to be involved in the
process of choosing a travel destination. Pearce (1982) also states that in?uencers often
give a more impressive picture of their experiences to please their listeners. Media and
travel agencies are very successful in manipulating individuals evoke sets and bringing
to mind ideas and places that would not usually be considered (Cohen, 1972). For example,
several future travel destination choices mentioned by respondents were probably
instilled into the evoke sets of individuals by movies, television, magazines or books.
Limitations and suggestions for future research
Although this study provides evidence that students within their particular program
have a desire to travel and are in?uenced by peers in their travel destination choices,
results could differ if researchers conducted the survey with a different reference
group. Participants in the questionnaire were students with post-secondary education
and involved in a degree program that focuses on travel and tourism. Cleverdon and
Edwards (1990, p. 132) argue, “greater awareness of, and interest in, foreign countries
has been generated by higher education and mass media.” The students in this study
are a unique group of individuals that form a reference group. Attitudes, values and
interests in travel destination choices have and will continue to in?uence travel
patterns and choices of individuals in the department. To understand the dynamics
behind peer in?uence and its affects on individuals travel patterns is the basis of this
study. Understanding peer in?uence on destination choice “is essential to recreation
planners and administrators who formulate and provide recreation services with
political, economical and environmental constraints” (Romsa and Hoffman, 1980).
Much of the studies in tourism literature for group in?uence develop segmentation
variables for analysis. For example, Hsu et al. (2006, p. 476) segmented respondents
based on their perceptions of three reference groups: family-in?uenced, friends/
relatives-in?uenced, and independent-thinking and delineated them “in terms of bene?ts
sought, attitude, behavioral intention and sociodemographic characteristics.” While these
segments showthree reference groups, the inclusion of relatives in the category of friends
confuses the notion of peer reference groups. As cultures often drawdifferent distinctions
between nuclear and extended families and relative in?uence of each (Childers and Rao,
1992) a de?nition of these variables is necessary to understand the roles of the different
reference groups in particular. Because, the nature of reference group in?uence on
tourism destination decision-making has had limited study, identi?cation of who is
included in each reference group would introduce further clarity. Given the strong
in?uence of peer reference groups noted in the results of various studies, this particular
group warrants further research. From this perspective future studies in the nature of
peer reference groups should identify who the peers are at various stages in life.
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Corresponding author
Russell R. Currie can be contacted at: russell. [email protected]
IJCTHR
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doc_649669224.pdf
The purpose of this study is to examine if an evoke set exists for pleasure travelers based
on the past and future travel destinations of their peer groups
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Going where the Joneses go: understanding how others influence travel decision-
making
Russell R. Currie Franz Wesley Paul Sutherland
Article information:
To cite this document:
Russell R. Currie Franz Wesley Paul Sutherland, (2008),"Going where the J oneses go: understanding how
others influence travel decision-making", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research,
Vol. 2 Iss 1 pp. 12 - 24
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Going where the Joneses go:
understanding how others
in?uence travel decision-making
Russell R. Currie and Franz Wesley
University of British Columbia, Kelowna, Canada, and
Paul Sutherland
King’s Christian School, Salmon Arm, Canada
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this study is to examine if an evoke set exists for pleasure travelers based
on the past and future travel destinations of their peer groups.
Design/methodology/approach – Researchers distributed a questionnaire to university students
enrolled in the same program. The literature review suggests four ways in which peers can in?uence
individuals: not to travel in?uence, direct in?uence, indirect in?uence, and shared goal of future
destination in?uence. Results from the respondents provide data for correlation analysis based on
these four types of peer in?uence.
Findings – The ?ndings support previous researchers demonstrating a strong in?uence of peer
reference groups on service purchase decisions, speci?cally tourism destination choice. Given a
relatively small sample population, all four types of peer reference found support in the data.
Research limitations/implications – Limitations are related to sample size and the homogeneity
of the sample. Because, the respondents were in the same life stage, their peer groups were similar to
all. Consequently, no comparative analysis speci?cally identifying peers and the degree of proximity
at different stages of life was possible.
Originality/value – Very few studies focus speci?cally on the nature of peer group in?uence on
service purchase behavior, related speci?cally with travel destination decision-making. By recognizing
travel patterns of individuals and understanding the in?uences causing these patterns, tourism
marketers and planners have a greater understanding of the mechanisms of peer in?uence in pleasure
travel destination choice.
Keywords Tourism, International travel, Consumer behaviour, Leisure activities
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Given the competitiveness of the tourism industry, understanding the traveler
decision-making process is of great interest to marketers. One aspect of this process is
the in?uence of proximal relationships on destination choice. While numerous studies
examine group in?uence on product purchasing decisions, less time has been spent
on services, and even less on tourism. This lack of attention occurs despite the
recognition that informal information channels are a powerful force in service
purchase decision-making (Bansal and Voyer, 2000). Reviewing the literature that
examines the in?uence of others on travel decision-making ?nds the use of numerous
constructs for analyzing this in?uence, two of which are closely related: the reference
group construct and peer group in?uence. Research on peer in?uence and its affect on
pleasure travel patterns is important as peers have a strong in?uence on travel
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1750-6182.htm
IJCTHR
2,1
12
Received September 2006
Revised November 2006
Accepted June 2007
International Journal of Culture,
Tourism and Hospitality Research
Vol. 2 No. 1, 2008
pp. 12-24
qEmerald Group Publishing Limited
1750-6182
DOI 10.1108/17506180810856112
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decisions ( Burch, 1965). With a greater understanding of the mechanisms of peer group
in?uence, marketing strategists in the tourism industry would be better equipped to
more effectively harness peer in?uence for the promotion of products and services.
Peers in?uence the attitudes and norms of behavior acceptable to individuals;
therefore, individuals often comply to group decisions and ideals in order to gain
acceptance (McNeil, 1969). Few studies examine, the impact of peer in?uence on tourist
motivations for choosing certain destinations while dismissing others. The purpose of
this study is to determine if the evoke set for pleasure travelers is based onthe past travel
destinations of their peer groups, the future travel destination of their peer groups, or no
relation to peer groups’ past or future destinations. The research speci?cally focuses on
peer in?uence and its affects on individuals’ pleasure travel patterns and destinations.
Furthermore, previous research claims peers are often primary and second hand sources
of information that individuals reference when choosing a pleasure travel destination,
basing past experiences of peers to measure the value of a decision (Ajzen and Driver,
1991). This study will determine what peer group factors in?uence individuals’ evoke
sets in choosing pleasure travel destinations. Results obtained froma survey conducted
with university students provide insight into the in?uence of peers and group dynamics
in determining pleasure travel destination. Consequently, this research contributes to
the literature that enables businesses in the tourism industry to establish effective
strategies for reaching target markets.
Literature
Reference group construct
Crutch?eld (1955) argues that, there are two types of people within a given group: there
are those who lead and there are those who follow. Those who follow have “less self
insight, less spontaneity and productive originality” (Dalton, 1961, p. 162). While, this
black-and-white perspective fails to consider the complexities of group dynamics and
social interactions, the principle illustrates the force exerted on individuals’ choices by
proximal relationships. Those persons or groups, whether real or imaginary, that
serves as a point of reference and is in?uential in individuals’ attitudes, choices and
beliefs is a reference group (Moutinho, 1987). Some examples of reference groups
include family, peers, work colleagues, friends, religious and ethnic groups, formal
social and leisure groups, trade unions, neighborhoods, teachers, and sports and
entertainment ?gures (Childers and Rao, 1992; Khan and Khan, 2005; Moutinho, 1987).
Considering the considerable power of informal information channels in search and
purchase behavior, marketers in the tourism industry could assume that some people
may choose to replicate vacation experiences enjoyed previously by friends or peers
because they would rather follow the advice and opinions of others than adopt a more
independent approach or risk making a wrong decision.
The literature on reference group in?uence is extensive and covers a range of
disciplines from sociology to psychology to marketing and consumer behavior (Hsu
et al., 2006). Some recent works examine in particular the social nature of consumer
decisions with implications for self-conceptualization, cultural identity, and gender
differences (Ariely and Levav, 2000; Bagozzi, 2000; Briley and Wyer, 2002; Escalas and
Bettman, 2005; Kongsompong, 2006). As Hsu et al. (2006) note in their literature review
of the topic, reference group in?uences vary across cultural, social and sectoral lines.
Product types also have a bearing on the nature of reference group’s in?uence, for
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example privately versus publicly consumed goods, luxuries versus necessities (Hsu
et al., 2006). The literature on reference group in?uence for consumer behavior, more
extensive for product purchasing than services, offers a number of different
classi?cations for reference group in?uences detailed below:
.
Informational. In?uence exerted on consumers who, faced with uncertainty, seek
credible sources that can inform their decision.
.
Utilitarian. Individuals’ seeking to gain rewards or avoid punishment by
complying with the expectations of others.
.
Value-expressive. Individuals require a psychological association with a group or
person, and thus seek to emulate the reference group or accept the group’s
positions out of a positive feeling towards the group.
.
Re?ected appraisal. An individual’s self-evaluation of beliefs, actions, and
behaviors inferred from other persons through direct interaction.
.
Comparative appraisal. Self-evaluation through the observation of others’
behavior, often from a distance.
.
Informative. Individuals accept information from others as evidence of reality.
.
Normative 1. Individuals conform to the expectations of others.
.
Normative 2. In?uence on general values and a basic code of behavior.
.
Comparative. Groups serve as points of reference and in?uence speci?c attitudes
and behavior.
Referring to the earlier work of Park and Lessig (1977), Bearden and Etzel (1982)
identify several types of in?uence: informational, utilitarian, and value-expressive.
Informational in?uence refers to in?uence exerted on consumers who, faced with
uncertainty, seek credible sources that can inform their decision. Utilitarian reference
group in?uence applies to individuals’ seeking to gain rewards or avoid punishment by
complying with the expectations of others. Value-expressive in?uence denotes those
who require a psychological association with a group or person, and thus seek to
emulate the reference group or accept the group’s positions out of a positive feeling
towards the group (Bearden and Etzel, 1982). Their study uses these three types of
in?uence and their ?ndings and methods form the foundation for a number of other
studies in this discipline (Hsu et al., 2006).
Becherer et al. (1982, p. 269) conduct a study in consumer behavior to examine the
issues of “if, when and for whom group in?uence is relevant.” Building on the works of
others (Festinger, 1954; Jones and Gerard, 1967), they identify two processes related to
group in?uence; re?ected appraisal is an individual’s self-evaluation of beliefs, actions,
and behaviors inferred from other persons through direct interaction; and comparative
appraisal is self-evaluation through the observation of others’ behavior, often from a
distance. The former requires personal interaction while the latter does not. Another
aspect of their study is the degree to which an individual’s behavior is a result of the
social environment or alternatively, internal forces, and their ?ndings indicated a
continuum dependent on an individual’s situational or dispositional orientation. They
conclude that social comparison does affect consumer choices among co-oriented peers,
regardless of which orientation, and that consumers will avoid products rated
“unsatisfactory by friends” (Becherer et al., 1982, p. 278).
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Childers and Rao (1992) review the literature on reference group in?uence on
consumer decisions, noting that the scholarship has long recognized the in?uence of
groups exerted on individuals’ purchasing decisions and has re?ned and clari?ed the
reference group construct over time. Their study distinguishes two reference groups,
familial and peer-based, and predicts that these two groups carry differing degrees
of in?uence. Basing their discussion on the seminal work of Bearden and Etzel
(1982), Childers and Rao (1992, p. 199) note that “socially proximal reference groups
allow for a signi?cant amount of interaction while socially distant referents allow for
relatively little or no direct interaction.” They formulate their study on the claim that
among socially proximal reference groups, ?ne distinctions for the purpose of
analysis can be made between familial and peer-based groups (Childers and
Rao, 1992).
Khan and Khan (2005) report a study on the purchasing decisions of designer label
clothing among the youth of Malaysia, with special consideration for gender
differences. They argue that, the most accepted reference group in?uences in the
literature are informative and normative social in?uence:
. . . whereas normative social in?uence refers to the tendency to conformto the expectations of
others, informational social in?uence refers to the tendency to accept information from others
as evidence of reality (Khan and Khan, 2005, p. 33).
They note that the credibility, attractiveness, and expertise of the reference group and
product conspicuousness are well-documented determinants of reference group
in?uence. Referents are a valuable source of information “perceived as instrumental to
the solution of a problem, or to reinforce established beliefs” (Khan and Khan, 2005,
p. 33). Moutinho (1987) articulates another classi?cation for group in?uences.
Normative groups are those that exert in?uence on general values and a basic code of
behavior, while comparative groups are those that “serve as points of reference and
in?uence speci?c attitudes and behavior” (Moutinho, 1987, p. 8).
The reference group construct has indeed undergone numerous re?nements,
clari?cations, and expansions (Bearden and Etzel, 1982). Despite the various
classi?cations and theoretical frameworks, the array of articles suggests agreement
that the construct has direct implications for marketers and academics (Becherer et al.,
1982; Childers and Rao, 1992). Hsu et al. (2006) offers a literature review speci?c to
referent group in?uence as it pertains to tourist destination decision-making. They note
that while limited work analyzes reference group in?uence for the services sector, for
tourism, some studies focus on information search strategies but none examine how
reference groups in?uence destination choice. The literature would suggest, however,
that further research on this topic would enhance understanding of vacation
decision-making.
Peer group in?uence
While the research of Hsu et al. (2006) examines three reference groups, the in?uence of
peer groups speci?cally is especially dominant in in?uencing purchase decisions. Peer
groups play an active role in people’s lives, especially in the adolescent years (Khan
and Khan, 2005; Pizer and Travers, 1975) but also in later stages. The literature
outlines the reasons for individuals conforming to peer groups, and the mechanisms of
this in?uence in the context of tourism destination choice.
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According to the literature, individuals choose to conform to a peer group for a
number of reasons. Peer reference groups help set and maintain standards and
attitudes. Sherif and Sherif suggest that:
. . . those groups in which he wants to be counted as an individual which include the
individuals whose opinions make a difference for him, whose standards and goals are his, are
his reference group (as cited in Clark, 1972, pp. 11-12).
Knowles and Knowles (1972, p. 44) state, “that on the whole, the broader the
participation among members of a group the deeper the interest and involvement will
be.” The more people interact with others in a group and share in the same experiences,
the more likely individuals will feel a belonging, leading to cohesion and uniformity of
the group. These groups often include people of the same age. Mill (1990) uses the term
generational in?uence to describe peer groups who are of similar age and share similar
beliefs and interests. Baby boomers, early baby boomers, and baby boomlets are
examples of such groups (Mill, 1990). Peer in?uence establishes the attitudes and
norms of behavior acceptable to the group.
Another reason to comply with a peer reference group is the pressure of unanimity.
Single individuals will often join the majority to avoid ridicule and rejection (Ajzen and
Driver, 1991). This is especially true for those who have a low self-esteem or may not
feel accepted within the group. Individuals who become involved in new reference
groups are often prepared to comply to group decisions and ideals in order to gain
acceptance ( McNeil, 1969, p. 179). Burch (1965, p. 612) states “expressiveness by its
transitory nature is dependent upon immediate recognition by a jury of peers.” If
individuals want to maintain their position among peers, they must abide by the codes
and norms of the group. If individuals do not respond to the demands of peers, the
individuals may feel removed and distant from the group because of their
non-compliance. Becherer et al. (1982) note that individuals vary in their tendencies
to rely on the advice of friends and peers.
Conformity also occurs when individuals acknowledge experts within the group
(Aronson, 1988). This is evident “even when behavior is not so subjective and the
unanimous majority is only a single other person, people can be strongly in?uenced by
authority and expertise” ( Reitz, 1977, p. 499). Therefore, if members of the group seem
knowledgeable in a given area, individuals are more susceptible to believe these
persons and take their advice. Guerin (1995, p. 383) notes, “basic properties of social
consequences and social accountability mediate the reported use of in?uence tactics
between individuals and groups, friends and strangers.” Peers have the ability to
in?uence individuals in decision-making, and this may extend into pleasure travel
tourism where an individual’s peers have had prior experience at a given destination.
The mechanisms of peer in?uence
Peer groups greatly affect travel in?uences through direct social interaction often
becoming the primary and second hand sources of information (Ajzen and Driver,
1991). Mieczkowski (1990, p. 180) states “tourists establish their images of destination
on the basis of less biased sources like opinions of friends and relatives who visited
these destinations.” Once friends and relatives have visited a destination, information
is passed on to individuals through WOM ( Mieczkowski, 1990). Friends also provide a
more realistic understanding of a destination than tourist-marketing literature, which
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can seem inaccurate or misleading compared to the perceived unbiased opinion of the
peer group ( Mieczkowski, 1990). This is more likely in a service product like tourism,
which can be dif?cult to evaluate (Bansal and Voyer, 2000).
Lansing (1968) suggests, that when a friend migrates to another country, a person is
more likely to visit that country because of their friendship. Statistics indicate that
people on average move after ?ve years of being in one place ( Mill, 1990). In order to
maintain friendships, relatives and peers will plan vacations to meet people in a certain
destination ( Mill, 1990). Therefore, peers have a strong pull on the travel patterns of
individuals, particularly in relation to international countries.
One aspect of the evaluation of leisure activities involves control beliefs, including the
attitudes and perceptions of an activity based on participation in the past (Ajzen and
Driver, 1991). But control beliefs are also subjected to the information gathered fromthe
experiences of friends and peers (Ajzen and Driver, 1991). Moutinho (1987) states that for
tourism, reference groups in?uence individuals’ destination choice by bringing
awareness of a particular destination or service and through direct communication of
experiences. In addition, Mitchell and Greatorex (1993) note that the high-perceived risk
factors of service purchasing stems from the heightened uncertainty in service
purchasing. One risk reliever wouldbe the positive feedback fromtrusted referents, such
as friends and colleagues. The impact of peer experience on control beliefs demonstrates
that the in?uence of peers can affect the decisions individuals make involving pleasure
travel destinations. Ajzen and Driver (1991, p. 201) con?rm the assumption that peer
in?uence has an affect on individuals’ activity choices:
People were found to engage in a certain recreational activity to the extent that they
associated favorable outcomes with the activity, they saw their friends and families as
approving of the activity, and they believed themselves to be in possession of the resources
required to perform the activity.
Normative beliefs also in?uence an individual’s destination choices because the beliefs
are concerned with the reference group’s level of agreement with the activity or
destination choice (Ajzen and Driver, 1991). If a reference group disapproves of an
experience, the likelihood of individuals participating in that experience is low.
Therefore:
. . . only when respondents uniformly believe that a given referent thinks they should perform
the behavior would motivation to comply be expected to show a positive correlation with
frequency of performance (Ajzen and Driver, 1991, p. 199).
Schul and Crompton (1983) argue that, a travel destination is often chosen because of
its unfamiliarity with the general public. From this perspective, prior experience by
one’s peers would detract from an individual choosing that particular destination.
Schul and Crompton (1983, p. 26) believe that:
. . . this emphasis on novelty implies that for many there is little desire to return to a
previously visited destination, no matter how successful a previous vacation at that
destination may have been.
The direct in?uence of peer groups on tourist motivations for selecting certain
destinations while dismissing others has not received much attention. Nevertheless,
the literature suggests that various travel in?uences such as beliefs and attitudes
established through peer group in?uences affect pleasure travel destination choices.
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This is an important area of research (Crandall and Lewko, 1976). The purpose of this
paper, understanding the in?uence of others on destination choice, “is essential to
recreation planners and administrators who formulate and provide recreation services
with political, economic and environmental constraints” (Romsa and Hoffman, 1980,
pp. 321-22).
Mercer (1971) states, that individuals experience a recollection phase where they
will evaluate and assess an activity previously performed. If the activity provided a
positive experience, it is most likely that the individual will participate in it again
( Mercer, 1971). No matter what the outcome of the experience might be, individuals’
perceptions and attitudes will greatly in?uence future pleasure travel destinations.
Therefore, peoples’ travel behavior can be understood as a “continual temporal and
spatial learning or adjustment process, perhaps settling into a habitual pattern for
awhile and the readjusting to a new pattern as circumstances change” (Mercer, 1971,
p. 271). Summarizing the literature on peer group in?uence on travel destination choice,
peers in?uence individuals in four ways:
(1) Peer in?uence causes an individual not to travel.
(2) Peer in?uence is a replicating in?uence in which the individual chooses to visit
the past destination of the peer in?uencer. Second-hand information will
in?uence individuals’ choices to travel to the destination previously visited by
peers.
(3) Peer in?uence through a goal shared to travel together to the future destination
chosen by the in?uencer. This in?uence often occurs when individuals travel to
visit friends or family who move to a foreign destination.
(4) Peer in?uence as an in-direct in?uence. The peer has in?uenced the individual
to travel but not in relation to the past or future destination of the in?uencer.
This type may occur when individuals are interested in traveling to a
destination alone, without the presence of friends or family.
These four types of in?uence form the basis of the survey study.
Research methods
Often individuals are often asked to re?ect on the basic reasons for their travels
without fully analyzing the roles groups and peers play in their decisions. This study is
purposely designed to allow participants consideration of the in?uence friends have on
decision-making as it pertains to international travel choices and to express their
opinions regarding peer in?uence. The researchers conducted a survey to determine if
an evoke set exists for pleasure travelers and if it is based on the past travel
destinations of their peer groups, the future travel destination of their peer groups, or
no relation to peer groups’ past or future destinations. The sample group for the
study’s questionnaire came from students attending university; all enrolled in the same
undergraduate program, consisting of students from years one through four. All
students within the department who had an e-mail account received a questionnaire,
totaling 550 surveys sent. Taking approximately ?ve minutes to complete, the survey
consisted of 24 questions. Basing the survey design on the four ways peer groups
in?uence travel destination choice, the questionnaire asked students to document
information pertaining to their past and present travel choices as well as their
perceptions of the in?uence of peers, family, and organizations on these choices.
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Questions addressed the individual’s relationship to peers and how these relationships
in?uenced their decision-making. Other questions involved past and future travel
destinations and individual’s attitudes and perceptions of them. Several questions were
open-ended, and those with common themes provided the researchers with more
accurate results when analyzing the data.
The researchers set a deadline so that data collection and analysis could take place,
so inevitably they had to omit from the analysis those surveys that came after the
deadline. Analysis of the information determined simple correlations among the
participants’ past travel experiences and future pleasure travel patterns and
destinations. The results indicate the mechanisms by which peer groups in?uence
travel destination choice.
Results
Nearly, 100 students replied to the questionnaire and returned their responses. Owing
to the lack of third and fourth year students participating in the survey, the researchers
removed surveys from this population from the data analysis. Only the responses of
?rst and second year students are used in the analysis. In total, 73 questionnaires met
the criteria for the purposes of this study. Respondents to the questionnaire included
30 males (41 percent) and 43 females (59 percent); similar to the demographics of the
university population.
For those students who had previously traveled outside Canada, most went on the
recommendation of others. Signi?cantly, for the male participants, more than double
went on the recommendation of others than those that did not. The majority of
respondents visited a foreign destination for the purpose of pleasure. Education was
the second highest reason for travel followed by travel for a sports event of some kind,
and 17 participants traveled to their destination choice because of culture. Only a very
small segment of the population traveled for business purposes, similarly the number
of those who visited a foreign destination for religious purposes.
The majority of the respondents had at one time traveled to the USA. The next most
visited international destination was Europe, followed by South America, then
Australia and Asia. Not one respondent claims to have visited the continent of Africa,
though some selected Africa to be a future destination choice.
Regarding future travel destination choices, Europe and Australia are the
most popular future destinations. The rest of the destination choices received less
consideration, as only 21 percent of respondents selected Asia, followed by Africa and
South America. Only 11 participants would make the USA a future travel choice.
A difference exists, in terms of perceptions of peer conformity to future travel
destinations, between the male and female students. The majority of males think that
the future travel destination choice of their friends would differ from their own. The
female response to the same issue, however, is evenly dispersed; half of the female
participants think their friends have the same international destination choice as their
own. Both male and female students would rather travel to a different destination than
their friends. Some participants reported whether it is the same or different destination
as their peers makes no difference. No signi?cant difference existed in the male
population regarding the importance of destination novelty, but a majority of female
respondents feel it was somewhat important.
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The impact of peers’ stories about their vacation experiences was a signi?cant
in?uence on travel choices. Of the 73 respondents, 60 students are motivated to have
the same experience as their peers after hearing about their travels. An interesting
comment was made by one participant who clari?es her answer by stating “[ I ] would
n’t want to do the same things [my peers] did but I would want to see the same
country.” In relation to hearing peers discuss their travels, the students all expressed
emotional responses of some kind. The majority of the respondents state that they feel
curious. Among males, jealousy was a stronger emotion than among the female
respondents when listening to peers’ travel stories. Female participants indicate a
stronger feeling of being excited about peers’ stories than the male participants.
The results indicate that for the student population, information gathered from
peers is more in?uential than travel agencies and books. The majority of the
respondents feel that travel agencies and books are not really as important as the
information they could gain from peers. Several participants stated that travel agency
information is absolutely not important and only one respondent, a male, stated that
travel agency information and books is absolutely more important than what they
could gather from peers.
Discussion and conclusion
The results re?ect the growing popularity and accessibility of the tourismindustry and
con?rm previous research regarding travel purposes and motives. International travel
is a popular activity amongst the student population as every respondent to the
questionnaire stated that they have traveled outside of Canada and plan to travel
internationally in the future. In agreement with Lansing (1968) and Pearce (1987) the
respondents have different motives for traveling internationally, but most students
travel for pleasure and to visit family/friends. Pleasure travel allows individuals to
choose from a vast array of destination choices ( Witt et al., 1995). As stated by Pearce
(1982), many people travel for the simple fact that they want to see the world. This
motivation is evident from the respondents’ list of previously traveled destinations and
where they would like to travel in the future. Not including Africa, students in this
sample population have traveled every continent, while every region on earth
was mentioned as a potential destination to visit in the future. Destinations such as
Patagonia, Argentina, South Africa, Antarctica, Scotland and Indonesia were very
popular choices in the data collected. Besides, pleasure motives, most respondents have
traveled internationally for the purpose of visiting family/friends. Individuals often
travel to countries that have similar cultural and historical backgrounds (Mill, 1990).
Next to the USA, Europe was the second highest area that the respondents visited
(24 percent). With the majority of respondents having ancestral roots to either the USA
or Europe, it is not surprising that students are traveling to these speci?c destinations.
Even within a relatively small sample population, the results support all four
methods of peer in?uence. Cleverdon and Edwards (1990) argue that society now
perceives international travel as a needed commodity and it should become a common
practice for most people. In agreement with this claim, all respondents thought they
would travel internationally within the next ten years. The majority of respondents
from both sexes envisioned themselves visiting the international destination of their
choice within the next ?ve years. This result shows that peer in?uence to not travel
was not demonstrated in this study.
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The results strongly accept the replicating in?uence of peers on destination choice.
First, respondents recognized this in?uence on their past travel patterns. The majority
of participants in the questionnaire stated that someone recommended a past travel
destination choice. Secondly, peers also in?uence the respondents’ plans for future
destinations. The majority of the respondents became curious when listening to peers
talk about their past travel experiences. Out of 73, 60 students stated that they are
motivated by peers to do the same experience after hearing about peers’ travels. This
response con?rms a certain interest in the activities of their peers and suggests that
these respondents perceive peers to be an authority or expert on a topic, thus
conforming to their actions. Social interaction relies on communication between
individuals and is a powerful tool in in?uencing others (Festinger et al., 1967). Peer
groups are an important source of primary and second-hand information for
individuals when deciding travel destination choice (Ajzen and Driver, 1991).
Several respondents stated that they do not want to travel to the same future
destination choice as their peers but this desire does not detract from their plans for
future travel. This response demonstrates an indirect in?uence in which the peer has
in?uenced the individual to travel but not in relation to the past or future destination of
the in?uencer. Although peers can have an in?uence on individuals, it does not mean
the in?uence is always positive. Schul and Crompton (1983) stated that, a travel
destination is often chosen because it is unfamiliar to individuals. The novelty is lost
once peers travel to the destination in mind, resulting in little desire to visit the
destination, no matter how wonderful others may build it up. The majority from both
sexes revealed that personal discovery of a foreign destination is somewhat important.
Travel may offer individuals a door to freedom to express themselves and do what
they want even when this choice con?icts with pressures of acceptance and
compliance. From both sexes, a majority indicated they had different future destination
choices than their peers. One assumption of the nature of peer in?uence would be that
of compliance and conformity; if peer in?uence were as strong as it was thought, the
vast majority of respondents would travel to the same future destination choices as
their peers. Results from the questionnaire, however, suggest that a strong yet in-direct
in?uence of peers, coupled with the novelty motivation of destination choice, leads to
differing future travel patterns.
The fourth in?uence is goal-shared, where the tourist travels to a destination chosen
by a peer. Almost half of respondents indicated they would like to travel to the same
future destination chosen by the in?uencer. This choice suggests the desire to travel in
order to visit peers who have moved or are visiting a foreign destination.
According to Nickerson (1996) there are three segments that make up the travel
market. These segments consist of “family and individual travel, group travel and
incentive travel” ( p. 251). The results from the questionnaire demonstrate that family
and individual travel is the largest market traveled by students. Group travel, either
travel with friends or an organization, was the second largest market traveled by
respondents. Although “family and individual travel” was the highest travel market
identi?ed, when travel with family and with friends was analyzed separately, the
numbers participating in these two categories were very close, 49 and 43 percent,
respectively. These results may con?rm Mieczkowski’s (1990) ?nding that there is an
increase in teenagers traveling with peers, separate from family.
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Results from the questionnaire also provided insight into the value individuals place
on the knowledge and advice of peers. The majority of respondents stated travel
information fromtravel guides and agencies was somewhat more important to themthan
information from friends. This demonstrates that peer in?uence has limited control
over individuals’ decision-making and that other in?uences need to be involved in the
process of choosing a travel destination. Pearce (1982) also states that in?uencers often
give a more impressive picture of their experiences to please their listeners. Media and
travel agencies are very successful in manipulating individuals evoke sets and bringing
to mind ideas and places that would not usually be considered (Cohen, 1972). For example,
several future travel destination choices mentioned by respondents were probably
instilled into the evoke sets of individuals by movies, television, magazines or books.
Limitations and suggestions for future research
Although this study provides evidence that students within their particular program
have a desire to travel and are in?uenced by peers in their travel destination choices,
results could differ if researchers conducted the survey with a different reference
group. Participants in the questionnaire were students with post-secondary education
and involved in a degree program that focuses on travel and tourism. Cleverdon and
Edwards (1990, p. 132) argue, “greater awareness of, and interest in, foreign countries
has been generated by higher education and mass media.” The students in this study
are a unique group of individuals that form a reference group. Attitudes, values and
interests in travel destination choices have and will continue to in?uence travel
patterns and choices of individuals in the department. To understand the dynamics
behind peer in?uence and its affects on individuals travel patterns is the basis of this
study. Understanding peer in?uence on destination choice “is essential to recreation
planners and administrators who formulate and provide recreation services with
political, economical and environmental constraints” (Romsa and Hoffman, 1980).
Much of the studies in tourism literature for group in?uence develop segmentation
variables for analysis. For example, Hsu et al. (2006, p. 476) segmented respondents
based on their perceptions of three reference groups: family-in?uenced, friends/
relatives-in?uenced, and independent-thinking and delineated them “in terms of bene?ts
sought, attitude, behavioral intention and sociodemographic characteristics.” While these
segments showthree reference groups, the inclusion of relatives in the category of friends
confuses the notion of peer reference groups. As cultures often drawdifferent distinctions
between nuclear and extended families and relative in?uence of each (Childers and Rao,
1992) a de?nition of these variables is necessary to understand the roles of the different
reference groups in particular. Because, the nature of reference group in?uence on
tourism destination decision-making has had limited study, identi?cation of who is
included in each reference group would introduce further clarity. Given the strong
in?uence of peer reference groups noted in the results of various studies, this particular
group warrants further research. From this perspective future studies in the nature of
peer reference groups should identify who the peers are at various stages in life.
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Corresponding author
Russell R. Currie can be contacted at: russell. [email protected]
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