Description
During in this such a brief file regarding gender issues in entrepreneurship education vocational technical education in perspective.
1
8
Gender Issues in Entrepreneurship Education: Vocational
Technical - Education in Perspective
By
HOGAN USORO, Ph.D
Department of Vocational Education,
University of Uyo,
Uyo.
ALI CE GABRI EL ETUK
Department of Vocational Education,
University of Uyo,
Uyo.
and
ANN EMANI DI J EH
Department of Home Economics,
University of Uyo,
Uyo.
Abstract
This paper discusses gender issues in entrepreneurship education with
a focus on vocational-technical education in Nigeria and some African
nations. The gender issue is about women’s poor representation in
entrepreneurship and vocational education. Entrepreneurship
education is any form of education that assists an individual to develop
technical, business management and personal entrepreneurial skills for
independent living. Gender issues in entrepreneurship education are
those inherited from the age-old gender problems of vocational
education. The identified causes of gender issues in both forms of
education include cultural, physiological, economic, religious and
those generated by women themselves. Entrepreneurship education
aims at personal and national development and is devoid of gender
restrictions. To address the gender issues, the government should
encourage increase in enrolment of females in vocational programmes
2
through lowering admission requirements for them, award
scholarships, offer free books and mount enlightenment campaigns to
educate females.
Definitions of entrepreneurship and the philosophy of entrepreneurship
education do not in any way imply gender bias. This form of education is for
everybody. The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) is an equal opportunity
document in the Nigerian system of education. It is also devoid of sex bias. The issue
of gender problem in entrepreneurship education and also technology education is
artificial, culturally – based and appears to conflict with the fundamental human rights.
It is instructive, at this point, to review the background of gender bias in
education in Africa as well as Nigeria. Women (as well as the handicapped) represent
huge untapped resources for national development. Their status of being an untapped
resource stems from their hindrances to education. These hindrances hinge on
economic, cultural, physiological and religious factors. Limited parental resources
(economic), early marriage(cultural), early pregnancy, child bearing and sexual
harassment (physiological) have been cited as factors that hinder female education in
Nigeria as well as other third world nations (Egunjobi, 2005 and Fapohunda, 2010). In
many societies, the education of women according to the same sources is not
considered important because girls do not normally pay back in full measure the money
invested in them.
Religious practices have also been observed to hinder women from
participating in education. Purdah and Sharia systems in the Northern part of Nigeria
have kept women out of the education scene. Furthermore, a special protective measure
aimed at protecting women and enhancing their effectiveness has turned around to
work against them. For example, International Labour Organization (ILO) conventions
banned women from night work, underground work and stipulated maximum weight a
woman should carry. Usoro, Ibritam and Usoro (2009) and Fapohunda (2010) reported
that some employers have used maternity protection and welfare facilities at
workplaces as reasons to discriminate against women and spend less in their education.
Women have also been observed to block themselves from educational endeavours. As
Fapohunda (2010) observed and reported, women who are married to well placed men
in life sometimes lack the will to pursue education for their own enlightenment. In the
light of the foregoing, women’s poor representation in education can be easily
imagined.
Female Education in Nigeria
According to 2006 census, there are 74 million women in Nigeria. Of this
population, about 61% suffer from intellectual poverty. Achume (2004) explained the
The Intuition
3
status of women education in Nigeria over four decades ago. About 38% of primary
school learners were girls while only 9% of undergraduates were female students. This
figure rose to 25. 5% by 1974 and the students were mainly enrolled in such courses as
education and social sciences. In 2005, the total full time enrolment of females in the
universities stood at 75, 548 as against the male population of 168, 217 (Federal Office
of Statistics, 2006). The early education curriculum was a very limiting one to the
disfavour of women. The curriculum focused on the training of women as teachers,
nurses and clerks. There were no women in medicine, politics, engineering, law and
environmental studies (Achume, 2004 and Federal Ministry of Education, 2009).
In the light of the foregoing, the consequence was the shortage of qualified
women for top level leadership posts. It is to be noted and regrettably observed that up
to the present, majority of women are not being trained or employed in job areas that
are likely to enhance their chances of competing for positions in the public milieu. This
low level of women education has aggravated the gender imbalance that has been
existing for several decades. Interestingly, the plight of women education in Nigeria has
led to the provision of gender issues in the national policy on education (FRN, 2004)
for improving women participation in education (Babalola, 2007; Federal Ministry of
Education, 2009; Owenvbiugie and Idjawe, 2011).
Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship is a drive based on creativity, feeling of independence and
propensity to own a business in order to make monetary profit. This feeling is in each
individual as a mustard seed awaiting manifestation. Hisrich and Peters (1986) defined
an entrepreneur as an innovator, an individual who takes risks and develops something
new. They pointed out that Eli Whitney and Thomas Edison developed new
technologies and were unable to finance their inventions. They were capital users
(entrepreneurs) and not providers (venture capitalists). Even though the definitions of
entrepreneurship contain similar notions such as newness, creativity, risk taking etc.
each definition appears restrictive since entrepreneurs are found in all professions in
life. It is apparently a member of each family of occupations. It is also a dynamic
process of creating incremental wealth. The wealth is created by individuals who
assume the major risks in terms of equity, time and or career commitment or provide
value for some product or service.
Functions and Importance of Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship is a kind of behaviour that includes: a) Initiative taking b)
the organizing and reorganizing of social and economic mechanisms to resources and
situations to practical account c) the acceptance of risk or failure
Gender Issues in Entrepreneurship Education: Vocational Technical Education in
Perspective - Hogan Usor o, Ph.D; Al i c e Gabr i el Et uk and Ann Emani Di j eh
4
The above functions and importance of entrepreneurship are hinged on three types of
skills covered by entrepreneurial exploits reported by Hisrich and Peters(2008: 20).
These skill areas are:
1. Technical skills 2) Business skills 3) Personal skills.
a. Technical skills: involve such things as writing, listening, oral presentations,
organizing, coaching, being a team player and technical know – how.
b. Business management skills: include those areas involved in starting,
developing and managing any enterprise. Skills in decision making, production,
control and negotiation are essential in launching and growing new ventures.
c. Personal entrepreneurial skills: include inner control or discipline, risk taking,
innovativeness, persistence, visionary leadership and being change-oriented. The
foregoing skills and objectives form the basis of the modular approach to an
entrepreneurship curriculum. It is to be noted that all the functions, importance
and skills areas in entrepreneurial endeavours are subsumed in vocational
education functions, philosophy and skills which impose no gender restrictions.
Entrepreneurship Education
Any form of education that assists an individual to develop the above three
occupational behaviours is entrepreneurship education. It is also education that
emphasizes the dignity of labour, encourages self – reliance and stimulates creativity. It
is expected to develop in the recipients the needed skills for self – reliance and prudent
participation in the world of work (Hisrich and Peters, 2008). Entrepreneurship
education is a new phenomenon in Nigeria. It is not yet offered as a programme of
study in tertiary institutions in Nigeria rather it is offered as a service course in
vocational education areas (FRN, 2008). Interestingly, the various arms of government
in Nigeria have made efforts towards offering entrepreneurship education in form of
training given by both federal and state governments to farmers in the recent times
(Akwa Ibom State Ministry of Agriculture, 2010). Entrepreneurship education is also a
programme of study designed to provide individuals with the ability to recognize
commercial opportunities and the insight, self – esteem, knowledge and skill to act on
them. It is education that focuses on a collection of formalized teaching that informs
trains and educates anyone interested in business creation or small business
development (Egboh, 2009). Sequel to the foregoing, Egboh (2009) and Hisrich (2008)
identified the goals and objectives of entrepreneurship education and training as
follows:
a) Provide meaningful education for the youth which could make them self – reliant
and subsequently encourage them to derive profit and be independent;
The Intuition
5
b) Provide youths with the skills and support necessary to help them establish
careers in small businesses;
c) Provide youths with training and skills that will make them creative and
innovative in identifying or uncovering new business opportunities.
In the United States of America (USA), entrepreneurship education is relatively
new, but it has not been fully embraced in the Nigerian system of education. To
introduce a course in entrepreneurship education into the Nigerian system of education,
it is prudent to adapt the American objectives as provided by Hisrich (1986). These
objectives are 15 and stated as follows:
1) Demonstrate an understanding of the roles of new and smaller firms in the
Nigerian economy.
2) Demonstrate an understanding of the relative strengths and weaknesses of
different types of enterprises.
3) Demonstrate knowledge of the general characteristics of an entrepreneurial
process.
4) Assess the student’s own entrepreneurial skills
5) Demonstrate an understanding of the entrepreneurial process and the product
planning and development process.
6) Demonstrate knowledge of alternative methods for identifying and evaluating
business opportunities and the factors that support or inhibit creativity
7) Develop an ability to form, organize and work in interdisciplinary terms.
8) Demonstrate knowledge of the general correlates of success and failure in
innovation and new venture creation.
9) Demonstrate knowledge of the generic entry strategies for new venture creation
10) Demonstrate an understanding of the aspects of creating and presenting a new
venture business plan.
11) Demonstrate knowledge of how to identify, evaluate and obtain resources
12) Demonstrate knowledge of the essentials of :
a) Marketing planning
b) Financial planning
c) Operations planning
d) Organization planning
e) Venture launch planning
13) Demonstrate knowledge of how to manage and grow a new venture
14) Demonstrate knowledge of the managerial challenges and demands of a new
venture launch.
15) Demonstrate an understanding of the role of entrepreneurship in existing
organizations
Gender Issues in Entrepreneurship Education: Vocational Technical Education in
Perspective - Hogan Usor o, Ph.D; Al i c e Gabr i el Et uk and Ann Emani Di j eh
6
Sequel to the foregoing goals and objectives of entrepreneurship education, it
is possible to plan strategies for achieving them.
Lukman and Oviawe (2010) identified the following as strategies to be adopted
to achieve and sustain a functional entrepreneurial education in Nigeria. They are:
a. Institutional seminars and workshops on entrepreneurial skills development
b. Internship to provide students with opportunity of experimental practice with
small business organizations.
c. Practical entrepreneurship counselling – students need counselling in this form
of education as in other forms. Teachers must be entrepreneurial counsellors.
d. Regular visitation to entrepreneurs in the community. The importance of this
strategy is self – explanatory.
e. Employment of qualified and competent teachers of entrepreneurial skills.
Skills acquired by students depend on the qualification, competence, concern
and devotedness of teachers. Entrepreneurship education plays a contributory
role in national development.
f. Teaching strategies favour the use of project method, field trips, case studies
and linkage with community entrepreneurs.
It is also possible to plan strategies for promoting entrepreneurship with
secondary school curriculum capitalizing on over 30 entrepreneurship/trade subjects
identified in the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) and by Lukman and
Oviawe (2010). The strategies for promoting entrepreneurship education at secondary
school level include:
a. Offer diversified curriculum to cater for the differences in talents, opportunities
and future roles.
b. Provide trained manpower in the applied sciences, technology and commerce at
sub – professional grades.
c. Inspire students with a desire for self improvement and achievement of
excellence.
d. Raise a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the dignity of
labour, and appreciate those values specified under our broad national goals and
lives as good citizens.
e. Provide technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural,
industrial, commercial and economic development.
The implementation of the foregoing strategies and upon successful pursuit of
the entrepreneurship education curriculum, the youth are likely to develop cognitive,
affective, perceptual and psychoproductive skills for self – reliance or entrepreneurial
exploits. Social and political stability is apt to emerge when the youth (males and
The Intuition
7
females) are properly settled with occupational skills in the identified vocational –
technical trades.
Faced with daily stressful situations and other difficulties, the possibility exists
that the entrepreneur will establish a balance between ethical exigencies, economic
expediency and social responsibility, a balance that differs from the point at which the
general business manager takes his or her moral stance. The question to raise at this
point is: can stressful nature of entrepreneurial work hinder females from emerging in
entrepreneurship education for eventual participation in the endeavour? The ensuing
sections may shed some light on the answer to the above question.
Comparison of Entrepreneurial Skills with Vocational Education Skills
The entrepreneurial skills as already noted include technical skills, business
management skills and personal entrepreneurial skills, whereas the vocational
education skills include cognitive skills, psychomotor skills, affective skills, and
perceptual skills. The skills of vocational education constitute a balanced work
behaviour which is very suitable for entrepreneurial occupations, and are highly prized
by employers of labour. They do not differ from those of entrepreneurship except on
semantic bases.
Male Versus Female in Entrepreneurial Characteristics
1. There has been a significant growth in female self – employment with women now
starting new ventures at three times the rate of men elsewhere, but in Nigeria, the
percentage of women who venture into business is lower than those who are
involved in ventures by virtue of their marriage.
2. The characteristics of both male and female entrepreneurs are generally very
similar, but female entrepreneurs differ in terms of motivation, business skills and
occupational backgrounds as illustrated in table 1.
Gender Issues in Entrepreneurship Education: Vocational Technical Education in
Perspective - Hogan Usor o, Ph.D; Al i c e Gabr i el Et uk and Ann Emani Di j eh
8
Table 1: Tabular Comparison between Male and Female Entrepreneurs
Characteristics Male entrepreneurs Female
entrepreneurs
Motivation Achievement – strive to make
things happen
Personal independence – self –
image as it relates to status
though their role in the
corporation is unimportant
J ob satisfaction arising from the
desire to be in control
Achievement –
accomplishment of a
goal
Independence – do it
alone
Departure point Dissatisfaction with present job
or outgrowth of present job
Discharge or layoff
Opportunity for acquisition
J ob frustration
Interest in and
recognition of
opportunity in the
area
Change in personal
circumstances
Sources of funds Personal assets and savings
Bank financing
Investors, loans from friends
and family
Personal assets and
savings
Personal loans
Occupational
background
Experience in line of work
Recognized specialist or one
who has gained a high level of
achievement in the field
Competent in a variety of
business functions
Experience in area of
business
Middle management
or administrative
level experience in
the field
Service related
occupational
background
Personality
characteristics
Opinionated and persuasive
Goal oriented
Innovative and idealistic
High level of self confidence
enthusiastic and energetic
Flexible and tolerant,
goal oriented
Creative and realistic
Medium level of self
confidence
The Intuition
9
Must be own boss
Enthusiastic and
energetic
Ability to deal with
social and economic
environment
Background Age when starting venture 25 –
35
Father was self employed
College educated – degree in
business or technical area
(usually engineering)
First born child
Age when starting
venture 35 – 45
Father was a self
employed
College educated –
degree in liberal arts
First born child
Type of business
started
Manufacturing or construction Service related –
educational services,
consulting or public
relations
Source: Hisrich and Peters (2008)
A close view of the comparison of the characteristics of male and female
entrepreneurs indicates the following: men and women appear to have similar reasons
for starting a business. Both have a strong interest and experience in the area of their
venture. However, men and women entrepreneurs differ in start – up financing. Men
often list investors, bank loans or personal loans in addition to personal loans as sources
of start – up capital while women usually rely solely on personal assets or savings. This
points out a major problem for women entrepreneurs. Men and women differ
occupationally. Personality-wise, men are more confident, less flexible and less tolerant
than women entrepreneurs. Men like manufacturing, construction or high technology
fields while women prefer service-related ventures. The question again to raise is: Do
the above male – female characteristics in terms of entrepreneurship indicate the
reasons for gender imbalance in the world of entrepreneurs with respect to vocational –
technical education in Nigeria?
Gender Issues in Vocational/Technology Education in Nigeria/Africa
It is worthy of note that challenges in gender issues in vocational education laid
the foundation for the transitional development of gender issues in entrepreneurship
education. The major purpose of technical and vocational education (TVE) is to
provide skilled manpower in applied sciences, engineering technology and commerce
to operate, maintain and sustain the nation’s economic activities for rapid socio –
economic development. Technical – vocational education is designed to impart the
Gender Issues in Entrepreneurship Education: Vocational Technical Education in
Perspective - Hogan Usor o, Ph.D; Al i c e Gabr i el Et uk and Ann Emani Di j eh
10
necessary skills and competencies leading to the production of craftsmen, technicians
and technologists who will be enterprising and self-reliant, thus having the greater
potential to generate employment, reduce poverty and eliminate the “area boys’
syndrome”. Unfortunately, these objectives have by far not been realized due to long
periods of system’s neglect and discrimination. The Federal Ministry of Education
(2009) provides the following reports:
1. There are 159 recognized technical colleges offering trades at NTC/NBC level
(19 Federal, 137 state and 3 private) with a total enrolment of 92, 216 (86.1%
male and 13.9% females) in 2005
2. In 2005, there were 2730 teaching staff comprising of a) 2,285 (83.7%) males
and b) 445 (16.3%) females. Student – staff ratio was 1: 35. The standard ratio is
1 : 25 indicating the need for more qualified staff. Owenvbiugie and Idjawe
(2011) reported gender disparity in trades practices. Out of 2542 apprentices who
enrolled in vocational trade progrmmes, 2215 (87%) were males while 327
(13%) were females. Reasons for this disparity have already been reported in this
paper.
Gender imbalances in vocational/technology education in Nigeria have been
an issue of serious concern to educators, women themselves and other stakeholders. In
the recent agricultural training offered by the Akwa Ibom State Government to farmers,
men were considered first before females in both training and financial benefits. This
kind of practice has a contributory effect on the already serious gender imbalance in the
affairs of the State and Nation.
Usoro, Usoro, Ibritam and Udofia (2009) identified causes of male students’
dominance over female counterparts in the Nigerian technical colleges to include:
1. Low enrolment of female students in the Nigerian technical colleges is rooted in
gender, parental interest, teachers, government and nature of technical education
factors.
2. Sex factor was identified by 70% of the subjects as the principal factor
responsible for low female enrolment in technical colleges.
3. Girls are attracted to certain vocational subjects and repelled by others such as
building, auto-mechanics, welding (Osuagwu, 1980)
4. Traditional societal prejudice against education of women in Nigeria.
5. Out of 604 students admitted into the engineering programme, in the University
of Benin, 589 were males while only 15 were girls (Nwachili and Egbue, 1993)
There are also gender problems in sub – Saharan Africa. Wheldon and Smith,
(1986), African Conference on the Education of Girls (1993), The Federation of
African Women Education (FAWE) (1995), and Klasem (2002), have painted a sad
picture of female education in Africa. Wheldon and Smith (1986) reported that out of
The Intuition
11
9000 students enrolled in the 20 Ghanaian technical institutions, only10% (900) were
females.
In Swaziland, girls generally tend to avoid technical subjects. Wheldon and
Smith (1986) reported that of the students who wrote examinations, 228 were in
technical drawing, 176 in woodwork and 108 in metal work. They were all boys and
vocational education is offered at tertiary level only. In Zambia, gender plays a
significant role in enrolment. During 1988/89 admission into technical education in the
University of Zambia, only 65 out of 741 students admitted were females. About 36
million girls in sub-Saharan Africa are out of school and those already in school are
poorly served. A greater percentage of girls (64%) than the boys drop out of school
without attaining full literacy. Four times as many boys as girls continue to the tertiary
level of education. The foregoing constitutes the background of gender issues
surrounding the development of entrepreneurship and vocational education in Nigeria
and Africa.
Gender Issues in Entrepreneurship Education Vis–a–Vis Gender Challenges in
Vocational/Technical Education in Nigeria
In the light of the foregoing write-up about entrepreneurship, its functions and
skills as well as objectives, vocational education, its objectives, skills offered etc. the
former is apparently a form of the latter. From this standpoint, it is conceivable that the
gender issues or challenges of vocational- technical education are also those of
entrepreneurship education. The gender issues in vocational education are as old as
vocational education itself which happens to be the oldest form of education on earth. It
became formalized before entrepreneurship education. Gender issues in
entrepreneurship education are, therefore, inherited challenges passed on by vocational
education. Strategies adopted to reduce or eliminate gender issues in vocational
education imply reduction of gender imbalance in entrepreneurial education and real
entrepreneurial exploits in Nigeria and Africa.
Conclusion
Entrepreneurial education is a form of vocational education which
contributes to personal and national development. It is devoid of gender restriction or
bias.
Recommendations
1. Governments should increase enrolment of females in vocational education
programmes via lowering admission requirements for them and awarding
scholarships to kindle females’ interest in the programme.
Gender Issues in Entrepreneurship Education: Vocational Technical Education in
Perspective - Hogan Usor o, Ph.D; Al i c e Gabr i el Et uk and Ann Emani Di j eh
12
2. Females in the programme should be promised instant jobs upon completion of
their training.
3. Government should mount enlightenment campaigns to educate females about
their much needed contributions towards national development via vocational
education and training.
References
Achume, R. N. (2004). Barriers to Access to Leadership Positions in Higher
Institutions with Special Reference to Nigerian Women. Nigerian Social
Scientists 7 (1).
Baba lola, Y. A. (2007). Promoting Gender Equality and Women Empowerment
through Business Education. A Paper Presented during ABEN Conference at
Abakaliki, Enugu State.
Egboh, S.H.O. (2009) Entrepreneurship Development for Employment and Wealth
Creation. Benin City: Edo State: Ehis Printer.
Egunjobi, L (2005). Women Empowerment Perspectives and Prospects: Ado Ekiti:
Fountain News papers and Publishing Company Ltd.
Fapohunda, T. M. (2010) Information Technology and Women Education in Nigeria.
Multidisciplinary J ournal of Research Development (MULJORED 15 (14))
Federal Ministry of Education (2009) Draft 2: Roadmap for Nigerian Education Sector.
Lagos: NERDC Press.
Federal Office of Statistics (2006). Uyo, Akwa Ibom State.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos:NERDC
Press.
Federation of African Women Educationists (FAWE) (1995). Girls and African
Education. Ouagadougu, Nairobi, Kenya.
Hisrich, R.D. & Peters, M. P. (2008) Entrepreneurship. New Delhi; India: Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
The Intuition
13
Klasem, S. (2002). Low Schooling for Girls, Slower Growth for All? Cross Country
Evidence on the Effect of Gender Inequality in Education on Development. The
World Bank Economic Review 6 (3) :313 – 317.
Lukman, A. & Oviawe, J . I. (2010). Strategies for promoting Entrepreneurship
Education in Secondary School Curriculum. In Iloputaife, E. C. Maduewesi, B.
U. & Igbo, R. U. (Eds) (2010). Issues and Challenges in Nigerian Education in
the 21
st
Century.Onitsha: West and Solomon Publishing Coy Ltd.
National Commission for Colleges of Education: Minimum Standards for Nigeria
Certificate in Education. Garki, Abuja, Nigeria: Government Printing Press.
Nwabuchili, C & Egbue, N. (1993). Sociological Foundations of Education. Onitsha:
Mid – Field Publishers Ltd.
Osuagwu, D. A. (1980). Factors Associated with Vocational Interest among a Group of
Nigerian Secondary School students. Unpublished Masters Degree of Education
Thesis. University of Ibadan.
Owenvbiugie, R.O & Idjawe, E. E. (2011). Gender disparity in the acquisition of
technical – Vocational skills in senior secondary schools in delta state: The Way
Forward. Journal of education, health and technology research 1 (1).
Pan - African Conference on the Education of Girls (1993). Education, Girls and
women in Africa. Ouagadougu, Burkina Faso.
Ukpong, D. (2003) Essentials of sociology of education for colleges and universities.
Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria; Assurance Publicaton Network.
UNICEF (2002). Girls’ Education in Nigeria: Online Resource.
Usoro, H. S. U., Usoro, M. Ibritam, K. & Udofia, W. U. (2009). Causes of Male
Students’ Dominance over Female Counterparts in the Nigerian Technical
Colleges: A Case Study of Abia State Technical Colleges. Journal of National
Association of Teachers of Technology 7 (1).
Wheldon, A. E. & Smith, A. C. (1986). Gender – Based Differences in O – Level
Subject Choice and Performance in Swaziland. ER Bulletin, 7: 65 – 77.
Gender Issues in Entrepreneurship Education: Vocational Technical Education in
Perspective - Hogan Usor o, Ph.D; Al i c e Gabr i el Et uk and Ann Emani Di j eh
doc_489960388.pdf
During in this such a brief file regarding gender issues in entrepreneurship education vocational technical education in perspective.
1
8
Gender Issues in Entrepreneurship Education: Vocational
Technical - Education in Perspective
By
HOGAN USORO, Ph.D
Department of Vocational Education,
University of Uyo,
Uyo.
ALI CE GABRI EL ETUK
Department of Vocational Education,
University of Uyo,
Uyo.
and
ANN EMANI DI J EH
Department of Home Economics,
University of Uyo,
Uyo.
Abstract
This paper discusses gender issues in entrepreneurship education with
a focus on vocational-technical education in Nigeria and some African
nations. The gender issue is about women’s poor representation in
entrepreneurship and vocational education. Entrepreneurship
education is any form of education that assists an individual to develop
technical, business management and personal entrepreneurial skills for
independent living. Gender issues in entrepreneurship education are
those inherited from the age-old gender problems of vocational
education. The identified causes of gender issues in both forms of
education include cultural, physiological, economic, religious and
those generated by women themselves. Entrepreneurship education
aims at personal and national development and is devoid of gender
restrictions. To address the gender issues, the government should
encourage increase in enrolment of females in vocational programmes
2
through lowering admission requirements for them, award
scholarships, offer free books and mount enlightenment campaigns to
educate females.
Definitions of entrepreneurship and the philosophy of entrepreneurship
education do not in any way imply gender bias. This form of education is for
everybody. The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) is an equal opportunity
document in the Nigerian system of education. It is also devoid of sex bias. The issue
of gender problem in entrepreneurship education and also technology education is
artificial, culturally – based and appears to conflict with the fundamental human rights.
It is instructive, at this point, to review the background of gender bias in
education in Africa as well as Nigeria. Women (as well as the handicapped) represent
huge untapped resources for national development. Their status of being an untapped
resource stems from their hindrances to education. These hindrances hinge on
economic, cultural, physiological and religious factors. Limited parental resources
(economic), early marriage(cultural), early pregnancy, child bearing and sexual
harassment (physiological) have been cited as factors that hinder female education in
Nigeria as well as other third world nations (Egunjobi, 2005 and Fapohunda, 2010). In
many societies, the education of women according to the same sources is not
considered important because girls do not normally pay back in full measure the money
invested in them.
Religious practices have also been observed to hinder women from
participating in education. Purdah and Sharia systems in the Northern part of Nigeria
have kept women out of the education scene. Furthermore, a special protective measure
aimed at protecting women and enhancing their effectiveness has turned around to
work against them. For example, International Labour Organization (ILO) conventions
banned women from night work, underground work and stipulated maximum weight a
woman should carry. Usoro, Ibritam and Usoro (2009) and Fapohunda (2010) reported
that some employers have used maternity protection and welfare facilities at
workplaces as reasons to discriminate against women and spend less in their education.
Women have also been observed to block themselves from educational endeavours. As
Fapohunda (2010) observed and reported, women who are married to well placed men
in life sometimes lack the will to pursue education for their own enlightenment. In the
light of the foregoing, women’s poor representation in education can be easily
imagined.
Female Education in Nigeria
According to 2006 census, there are 74 million women in Nigeria. Of this
population, about 61% suffer from intellectual poverty. Achume (2004) explained the
The Intuition
3
status of women education in Nigeria over four decades ago. About 38% of primary
school learners were girls while only 9% of undergraduates were female students. This
figure rose to 25. 5% by 1974 and the students were mainly enrolled in such courses as
education and social sciences. In 2005, the total full time enrolment of females in the
universities stood at 75, 548 as against the male population of 168, 217 (Federal Office
of Statistics, 2006). The early education curriculum was a very limiting one to the
disfavour of women. The curriculum focused on the training of women as teachers,
nurses and clerks. There were no women in medicine, politics, engineering, law and
environmental studies (Achume, 2004 and Federal Ministry of Education, 2009).
In the light of the foregoing, the consequence was the shortage of qualified
women for top level leadership posts. It is to be noted and regrettably observed that up
to the present, majority of women are not being trained or employed in job areas that
are likely to enhance their chances of competing for positions in the public milieu. This
low level of women education has aggravated the gender imbalance that has been
existing for several decades. Interestingly, the plight of women education in Nigeria has
led to the provision of gender issues in the national policy on education (FRN, 2004)
for improving women participation in education (Babalola, 2007; Federal Ministry of
Education, 2009; Owenvbiugie and Idjawe, 2011).
Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship is a drive based on creativity, feeling of independence and
propensity to own a business in order to make monetary profit. This feeling is in each
individual as a mustard seed awaiting manifestation. Hisrich and Peters (1986) defined
an entrepreneur as an innovator, an individual who takes risks and develops something
new. They pointed out that Eli Whitney and Thomas Edison developed new
technologies and were unable to finance their inventions. They were capital users
(entrepreneurs) and not providers (venture capitalists). Even though the definitions of
entrepreneurship contain similar notions such as newness, creativity, risk taking etc.
each definition appears restrictive since entrepreneurs are found in all professions in
life. It is apparently a member of each family of occupations. It is also a dynamic
process of creating incremental wealth. The wealth is created by individuals who
assume the major risks in terms of equity, time and or career commitment or provide
value for some product or service.
Functions and Importance of Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship is a kind of behaviour that includes: a) Initiative taking b)
the organizing and reorganizing of social and economic mechanisms to resources and
situations to practical account c) the acceptance of risk or failure
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The above functions and importance of entrepreneurship are hinged on three types of
skills covered by entrepreneurial exploits reported by Hisrich and Peters(2008: 20).
These skill areas are:
1. Technical skills 2) Business skills 3) Personal skills.
a. Technical skills: involve such things as writing, listening, oral presentations,
organizing, coaching, being a team player and technical know – how.
b. Business management skills: include those areas involved in starting,
developing and managing any enterprise. Skills in decision making, production,
control and negotiation are essential in launching and growing new ventures.
c. Personal entrepreneurial skills: include inner control or discipline, risk taking,
innovativeness, persistence, visionary leadership and being change-oriented. The
foregoing skills and objectives form the basis of the modular approach to an
entrepreneurship curriculum. It is to be noted that all the functions, importance
and skills areas in entrepreneurial endeavours are subsumed in vocational
education functions, philosophy and skills which impose no gender restrictions.
Entrepreneurship Education
Any form of education that assists an individual to develop the above three
occupational behaviours is entrepreneurship education. It is also education that
emphasizes the dignity of labour, encourages self – reliance and stimulates creativity. It
is expected to develop in the recipients the needed skills for self – reliance and prudent
participation in the world of work (Hisrich and Peters, 2008). Entrepreneurship
education is a new phenomenon in Nigeria. It is not yet offered as a programme of
study in tertiary institutions in Nigeria rather it is offered as a service course in
vocational education areas (FRN, 2008). Interestingly, the various arms of government
in Nigeria have made efforts towards offering entrepreneurship education in form of
training given by both federal and state governments to farmers in the recent times
(Akwa Ibom State Ministry of Agriculture, 2010). Entrepreneurship education is also a
programme of study designed to provide individuals with the ability to recognize
commercial opportunities and the insight, self – esteem, knowledge and skill to act on
them. It is education that focuses on a collection of formalized teaching that informs
trains and educates anyone interested in business creation or small business
development (Egboh, 2009). Sequel to the foregoing, Egboh (2009) and Hisrich (2008)
identified the goals and objectives of entrepreneurship education and training as
follows:
a) Provide meaningful education for the youth which could make them self – reliant
and subsequently encourage them to derive profit and be independent;
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5
b) Provide youths with the skills and support necessary to help them establish
careers in small businesses;
c) Provide youths with training and skills that will make them creative and
innovative in identifying or uncovering new business opportunities.
In the United States of America (USA), entrepreneurship education is relatively
new, but it has not been fully embraced in the Nigerian system of education. To
introduce a course in entrepreneurship education into the Nigerian system of education,
it is prudent to adapt the American objectives as provided by Hisrich (1986). These
objectives are 15 and stated as follows:
1) Demonstrate an understanding of the roles of new and smaller firms in the
Nigerian economy.
2) Demonstrate an understanding of the relative strengths and weaknesses of
different types of enterprises.
3) Demonstrate knowledge of the general characteristics of an entrepreneurial
process.
4) Assess the student’s own entrepreneurial skills
5) Demonstrate an understanding of the entrepreneurial process and the product
planning and development process.
6) Demonstrate knowledge of alternative methods for identifying and evaluating
business opportunities and the factors that support or inhibit creativity
7) Develop an ability to form, organize and work in interdisciplinary terms.
8) Demonstrate knowledge of the general correlates of success and failure in
innovation and new venture creation.
9) Demonstrate knowledge of the generic entry strategies for new venture creation
10) Demonstrate an understanding of the aspects of creating and presenting a new
venture business plan.
11) Demonstrate knowledge of how to identify, evaluate and obtain resources
12) Demonstrate knowledge of the essentials of :
a) Marketing planning
b) Financial planning
c) Operations planning
d) Organization planning
e) Venture launch planning
13) Demonstrate knowledge of how to manage and grow a new venture
14) Demonstrate knowledge of the managerial challenges and demands of a new
venture launch.
15) Demonstrate an understanding of the role of entrepreneurship in existing
organizations
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Sequel to the foregoing goals and objectives of entrepreneurship education, it
is possible to plan strategies for achieving them.
Lukman and Oviawe (2010) identified the following as strategies to be adopted
to achieve and sustain a functional entrepreneurial education in Nigeria. They are:
a. Institutional seminars and workshops on entrepreneurial skills development
b. Internship to provide students with opportunity of experimental practice with
small business organizations.
c. Practical entrepreneurship counselling – students need counselling in this form
of education as in other forms. Teachers must be entrepreneurial counsellors.
d. Regular visitation to entrepreneurs in the community. The importance of this
strategy is self – explanatory.
e. Employment of qualified and competent teachers of entrepreneurial skills.
Skills acquired by students depend on the qualification, competence, concern
and devotedness of teachers. Entrepreneurship education plays a contributory
role in national development.
f. Teaching strategies favour the use of project method, field trips, case studies
and linkage with community entrepreneurs.
It is also possible to plan strategies for promoting entrepreneurship with
secondary school curriculum capitalizing on over 30 entrepreneurship/trade subjects
identified in the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) and by Lukman and
Oviawe (2010). The strategies for promoting entrepreneurship education at secondary
school level include:
a. Offer diversified curriculum to cater for the differences in talents, opportunities
and future roles.
b. Provide trained manpower in the applied sciences, technology and commerce at
sub – professional grades.
c. Inspire students with a desire for self improvement and achievement of
excellence.
d. Raise a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the dignity of
labour, and appreciate those values specified under our broad national goals and
lives as good citizens.
e. Provide technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural,
industrial, commercial and economic development.
The implementation of the foregoing strategies and upon successful pursuit of
the entrepreneurship education curriculum, the youth are likely to develop cognitive,
affective, perceptual and psychoproductive skills for self – reliance or entrepreneurial
exploits. Social and political stability is apt to emerge when the youth (males and
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females) are properly settled with occupational skills in the identified vocational –
technical trades.
Faced with daily stressful situations and other difficulties, the possibility exists
that the entrepreneur will establish a balance between ethical exigencies, economic
expediency and social responsibility, a balance that differs from the point at which the
general business manager takes his or her moral stance. The question to raise at this
point is: can stressful nature of entrepreneurial work hinder females from emerging in
entrepreneurship education for eventual participation in the endeavour? The ensuing
sections may shed some light on the answer to the above question.
Comparison of Entrepreneurial Skills with Vocational Education Skills
The entrepreneurial skills as already noted include technical skills, business
management skills and personal entrepreneurial skills, whereas the vocational
education skills include cognitive skills, psychomotor skills, affective skills, and
perceptual skills. The skills of vocational education constitute a balanced work
behaviour which is very suitable for entrepreneurial occupations, and are highly prized
by employers of labour. They do not differ from those of entrepreneurship except on
semantic bases.
Male Versus Female in Entrepreneurial Characteristics
1. There has been a significant growth in female self – employment with women now
starting new ventures at three times the rate of men elsewhere, but in Nigeria, the
percentage of women who venture into business is lower than those who are
involved in ventures by virtue of their marriage.
2. The characteristics of both male and female entrepreneurs are generally very
similar, but female entrepreneurs differ in terms of motivation, business skills and
occupational backgrounds as illustrated in table 1.
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Table 1: Tabular Comparison between Male and Female Entrepreneurs
Characteristics Male entrepreneurs Female
entrepreneurs
Motivation Achievement – strive to make
things happen
Personal independence – self –
image as it relates to status
though their role in the
corporation is unimportant
J ob satisfaction arising from the
desire to be in control
Achievement –
accomplishment of a
goal
Independence – do it
alone
Departure point Dissatisfaction with present job
or outgrowth of present job
Discharge or layoff
Opportunity for acquisition
J ob frustration
Interest in and
recognition of
opportunity in the
area
Change in personal
circumstances
Sources of funds Personal assets and savings
Bank financing
Investors, loans from friends
and family
Personal assets and
savings
Personal loans
Occupational
background
Experience in line of work
Recognized specialist or one
who has gained a high level of
achievement in the field
Competent in a variety of
business functions
Experience in area of
business
Middle management
or administrative
level experience in
the field
Service related
occupational
background
Personality
characteristics
Opinionated and persuasive
Goal oriented
Innovative and idealistic
High level of self confidence
enthusiastic and energetic
Flexible and tolerant,
goal oriented
Creative and realistic
Medium level of self
confidence
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Must be own boss
Enthusiastic and
energetic
Ability to deal with
social and economic
environment
Background Age when starting venture 25 –
35
Father was self employed
College educated – degree in
business or technical area
(usually engineering)
First born child
Age when starting
venture 35 – 45
Father was a self
employed
College educated –
degree in liberal arts
First born child
Type of business
started
Manufacturing or construction Service related –
educational services,
consulting or public
relations
Source: Hisrich and Peters (2008)
A close view of the comparison of the characteristics of male and female
entrepreneurs indicates the following: men and women appear to have similar reasons
for starting a business. Both have a strong interest and experience in the area of their
venture. However, men and women entrepreneurs differ in start – up financing. Men
often list investors, bank loans or personal loans in addition to personal loans as sources
of start – up capital while women usually rely solely on personal assets or savings. This
points out a major problem for women entrepreneurs. Men and women differ
occupationally. Personality-wise, men are more confident, less flexible and less tolerant
than women entrepreneurs. Men like manufacturing, construction or high technology
fields while women prefer service-related ventures. The question again to raise is: Do
the above male – female characteristics in terms of entrepreneurship indicate the
reasons for gender imbalance in the world of entrepreneurs with respect to vocational –
technical education in Nigeria?
Gender Issues in Vocational/Technology Education in Nigeria/Africa
It is worthy of note that challenges in gender issues in vocational education laid
the foundation for the transitional development of gender issues in entrepreneurship
education. The major purpose of technical and vocational education (TVE) is to
provide skilled manpower in applied sciences, engineering technology and commerce
to operate, maintain and sustain the nation’s economic activities for rapid socio –
economic development. Technical – vocational education is designed to impart the
Gender Issues in Entrepreneurship Education: Vocational Technical Education in
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necessary skills and competencies leading to the production of craftsmen, technicians
and technologists who will be enterprising and self-reliant, thus having the greater
potential to generate employment, reduce poverty and eliminate the “area boys’
syndrome”. Unfortunately, these objectives have by far not been realized due to long
periods of system’s neglect and discrimination. The Federal Ministry of Education
(2009) provides the following reports:
1. There are 159 recognized technical colleges offering trades at NTC/NBC level
(19 Federal, 137 state and 3 private) with a total enrolment of 92, 216 (86.1%
male and 13.9% females) in 2005
2. In 2005, there were 2730 teaching staff comprising of a) 2,285 (83.7%) males
and b) 445 (16.3%) females. Student – staff ratio was 1: 35. The standard ratio is
1 : 25 indicating the need for more qualified staff. Owenvbiugie and Idjawe
(2011) reported gender disparity in trades practices. Out of 2542 apprentices who
enrolled in vocational trade progrmmes, 2215 (87%) were males while 327
(13%) were females. Reasons for this disparity have already been reported in this
paper.
Gender imbalances in vocational/technology education in Nigeria have been
an issue of serious concern to educators, women themselves and other stakeholders. In
the recent agricultural training offered by the Akwa Ibom State Government to farmers,
men were considered first before females in both training and financial benefits. This
kind of practice has a contributory effect on the already serious gender imbalance in the
affairs of the State and Nation.
Usoro, Usoro, Ibritam and Udofia (2009) identified causes of male students’
dominance over female counterparts in the Nigerian technical colleges to include:
1. Low enrolment of female students in the Nigerian technical colleges is rooted in
gender, parental interest, teachers, government and nature of technical education
factors.
2. Sex factor was identified by 70% of the subjects as the principal factor
responsible for low female enrolment in technical colleges.
3. Girls are attracted to certain vocational subjects and repelled by others such as
building, auto-mechanics, welding (Osuagwu, 1980)
4. Traditional societal prejudice against education of women in Nigeria.
5. Out of 604 students admitted into the engineering programme, in the University
of Benin, 589 were males while only 15 were girls (Nwachili and Egbue, 1993)
There are also gender problems in sub – Saharan Africa. Wheldon and Smith,
(1986), African Conference on the Education of Girls (1993), The Federation of
African Women Education (FAWE) (1995), and Klasem (2002), have painted a sad
picture of female education in Africa. Wheldon and Smith (1986) reported that out of
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11
9000 students enrolled in the 20 Ghanaian technical institutions, only10% (900) were
females.
In Swaziland, girls generally tend to avoid technical subjects. Wheldon and
Smith (1986) reported that of the students who wrote examinations, 228 were in
technical drawing, 176 in woodwork and 108 in metal work. They were all boys and
vocational education is offered at tertiary level only. In Zambia, gender plays a
significant role in enrolment. During 1988/89 admission into technical education in the
University of Zambia, only 65 out of 741 students admitted were females. About 36
million girls in sub-Saharan Africa are out of school and those already in school are
poorly served. A greater percentage of girls (64%) than the boys drop out of school
without attaining full literacy. Four times as many boys as girls continue to the tertiary
level of education. The foregoing constitutes the background of gender issues
surrounding the development of entrepreneurship and vocational education in Nigeria
and Africa.
Gender Issues in Entrepreneurship Education Vis–a–Vis Gender Challenges in
Vocational/Technical Education in Nigeria
In the light of the foregoing write-up about entrepreneurship, its functions and
skills as well as objectives, vocational education, its objectives, skills offered etc. the
former is apparently a form of the latter. From this standpoint, it is conceivable that the
gender issues or challenges of vocational- technical education are also those of
entrepreneurship education. The gender issues in vocational education are as old as
vocational education itself which happens to be the oldest form of education on earth. It
became formalized before entrepreneurship education. Gender issues in
entrepreneurship education are, therefore, inherited challenges passed on by vocational
education. Strategies adopted to reduce or eliminate gender issues in vocational
education imply reduction of gender imbalance in entrepreneurial education and real
entrepreneurial exploits in Nigeria and Africa.
Conclusion
Entrepreneurial education is a form of vocational education which
contributes to personal and national development. It is devoid of gender restriction or
bias.
Recommendations
1. Governments should increase enrolment of females in vocational education
programmes via lowering admission requirements for them and awarding
scholarships to kindle females’ interest in the programme.
Gender Issues in Entrepreneurship Education: Vocational Technical Education in
Perspective - Hogan Usor o, Ph.D; Al i c e Gabr i el Et uk and Ann Emani Di j eh
12
2. Females in the programme should be promised instant jobs upon completion of
their training.
3. Government should mount enlightenment campaigns to educate females about
their much needed contributions towards national development via vocational
education and training.
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