Description
This paper aims to look at the relationship between film tourism and ecotourism and
questions whether the two are compatible or mutually exclusive.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Film tourism and ecotourism: mutually exclusive or compatible?
Maria Sakellari
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To cite this document:
Maria Sakellari , (2014),"Film tourism and ecotourism: mutually exclusive or compatible?", International J ournal of Culture,
Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 8 Iss 2 pp. 194 - 202
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W. Glen Croy, (2011),"Film tourism: sustained economic contributions to destinations", Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism
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Peter Bolan, Stephen Boy, J im Bell, (2011),"“We've seen it in the movies, let's see if it's true”: Authenticity and
displacement in film-induced tourism", Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, Vol. 3 Iss 2 pp. 102-116 http://
dx.doi.org/10.1108/17554211111122970
Rafael Pires Basáñez, Hadyn Ingram, (2013),"Film and tourism: the imagined place and the place of the imagined",
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Film tourism and ecotourism: mutually
exclusive or compatible?
Maria Sakellari
Maria Sakellari is a Senior
Researcher at the Natural
History Museum of Crete,
University of Crete,
Heraklion, Greece.
Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to look at the relationship between ?lm tourism and ecotourism and
questions whether the two are compatible or mutually exclusive.
Design/methodology/approach – Entertainment ?lms are making a deep impact on international
tourism development, with popular movies playing an increasingly in?uential role in tourists’ choice of
holiday destination. Areas with high natural value are frequently used as ?lm locations, their image as a
nature-loving escape paradise emerges and is coincided with a growth of ?lm-induced visitors, willing
to participate in nature-based activities. Tourism has always been a fundamental component of the
areas of high natural value concept, and with this unparalled growth of the ?lm tourism and ecotourism,
it was inevitable that one day they will meet and interact in natural areas. This paper provides case
studies where ?lmic intervention shapes tourist nature-loving imaginings, triggers ecotourism activities
but also raises environmental concern of locals, and ?lms like The Beach (2000) and Deliverance (1972)
and the TV series Pride and Prejudice (1996) are subject to discussion.
Findings – In many cases, the natural areas have not the carryingcapacity to cope with large increases
in ?lm-induced visitors, and this results in a number of possible undesirable consequences, from the
loss of privacy to the destruction of the natural environment. This paper suggests that ?lm tourism and
ecotourismare compatible if tourismpolicy planners followstrategies, such as environmental education
initiatives, that engage ?lm tourism stakeholders and the ?lm industry in creating solutions to
environmental challenges.
Originality/value – Film tourism planning hasn’t yet focused on the tools for environmentally sound
management of a destination. This paper argues that ?lm tourism literature needs to develop marketing
and policy perspectives to inform appropriate environmental management of ?lm tourism planning and
enhance environmental sustainability of a destination.
Keywords Conservation, Environmental education, Ecotourism, Film tourism, Natural areas, Holiday
destinations
Paper type Research Paper
1. Film tourism and ecotourism
The media have become a major vehicle of awareness and style leadership, and they have
brought the wonders of the world and the excitement of various remote natural
environments to millions of people (Coates, 1991). Having been exposed repeatedly to
these things, the desire to see and experience them becomes more powerful (Kaufman,
1983). In this regard, ?lms play a key role in in?uencing people’s perceptions of a
destination prior to their arrival (O’Connor et al., 2010). Film tourism, visitation of a site or a
location, that is or has been used for or is associated with ?lming (Buchmann et al., 2010)
is a growing phenomenon worldwide, fuelled by both the growth of the entertainment
industry and the increase in international travel (Hudson and Ritchie, 2006). Film tourism
generates an increase in visitor numbers and subsequent rise in revenues and employment
(Riley and Van Doren, 1992; Tooke and Baker, 1996; Hudson and Ritchie, 2006), broadens
visitors market (Scho?eld, 1996), alleviates problems of seasonability (Beeton, 2004a) and
draws visitors year after year (Riley et al., 1998). Popular ?lms that have been subject to
academic discussion include Lord of the Rings (Tzanelli, 2004; Beeton, 2005; Jones and
Received 4 September 2013
Revised 17 January 2014
18 March 2014
Accepted 19 March 2014
PAGE 194 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOL. 8 NO. 2, 2014, pp. 194-202, © Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/IJCTHR-09-2013-0064
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Smith, 2005; Carl et al., 2007), The Beach in Thailand (Forsyth, 2002;Tzanelli, 2006; Law et
al., 2007), Notting Hill in London (Busby and Klug, 2001), Ned Kelly in Australia (Beeton,
2004a, 2004b; Frost, 2006), Ballykissangel in Northern Ireland (Barton, 2000; Bolan et al.,
2007) and Captain Corelli’s Mandolin in Cephalonia (Hudson and Ritchie, 2006).
Films tend to be more successful in attracting ?lm tourists if the storyline and site are closely
interrelated, the ?lm involves the audience in the story giving them an emotional experience
that they can link with the location, and if the ?lm re?ects an authentic image of the
destination and captures the essence of a place, whether it is scenery or cultural content
(Tooke and Baker, 1996, Grihault, 2003). In USA, the National Park system is incredibly
diverse, ranging from ?agship parks (Yellowstone and Yosemite) to smaller urban parks
(Golden Gate, National Mall and Fire Island), and National Battle?eld and Historic sites and
with sprawling acres of natural beauty; its ubiquity is forever immortalized in many hit
Hollywood movies. In this regard, parks of?cials often collaborate with ?lm commissions
and producers, encouraging ?lming to attract visitors.
If we take the argument of Heitmann (2010) that ?lms trigger existing types of tourism, then
with this unparalled growth of the ?lm tourism and the ecotourism, it was inevitable that one
day they will meet and interact in natural parks. Ecotourism is the responsible tourism in
natural areas able to facilitate conservation objectives (Tisdell and Wilson, 2005; Blangy
and Wood, 1993; Yu et al., 1997; Maharana et al., 2000). Despite criticism that is closely
related to free-market, a business that has to compete along with other businesses and
focus on pro?t rather on conservation (Duffy, 2002) and that in some cases produces
negative impacts on natural resources (Ballantyne and Pickering, 2012), the ?eld of
ecotourism is still very popular among tourism theorists and practitioners as a form of
tourism that minimizes the negative aspects of conventional tourism on the environment
and the culture identity of local communities. Ecotourism involves visiting protected areas
such as national parks and reserves, which now cover ? 12 per cent of the world’s land
area (Chape et al., 2005) and play a major role in conserving sensitive ecosystems.
Ecotourism has always been a fundamental component of the areas of high natural value
concept; however, in many cases the natural areas have not the carrying capacity to cope
with large increases in ?lm-induced visitors, and this results in a number of possible
undesirable consequences, from the loss of privacy to the destruction of the natural
environment.
2. Natural parks and movies: a love and death dilemma
The physical environment can relate to the storyline of a ?lm in varying degrees from being
a passive backdrop to the action, as in many old Westerns, right through to being an
integral part of the storyline (Beeton, 2005). The Australian movies that attracted interest in
the USA used the natural environment as a backdrop to the action, there was interaction
and struggle of man with that environment and the lifestyles depicted were relatively
uncomplicated (Riley and Van Doren, 1992). Greek ?lms gained international attention with
Stella (1955), directed by Michael Cacoyannis, Never on Sunday (1960), directed by Jules
Dassin, and Zorba the Greek (1964), directed by Michael Cacoyannis. As a result, the
international image of Greece as a fun-loving tourist resort and escapist paradise emerged
and coincided with an unprecedented growth of the tourist industry in the 1960s. Also,
Greek ?lms musicals, such as Some Like it Cold (1963), Girls for Kisses (1965) and
Mermaids and Lads (1969), promoted domestic tourism because they treated their viewers
as virtual tourists, offering them a two-hour wishful ful?llment without any costly physical
displacement (Papadimitriou, 2000). Greece accepted crowds of tourists and, as it is
located in the center of the Mediterranean, the country was transformed to one of the two
main tourist destinations worldwide, the other being North-central America (Mesplier and
Bloc-Dureffour, 1997). This peaceful “invasion” of other cultures in Greece affected every
aspect of Greek life, from bank accounts and self-awareness to appearance and language
(Costantinidis, 2000), and altered the natural environment. The main driving force behind
VOL. 8 NO. 2 2014 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 195
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coastal environmental degradation in Greece is extensive tourism-driven urbanization.
Sprawl of often illegal summerhouses and rooms-to-let, attraction of a range of diverse
economic activities and the high density of roads and other transport infrastructure exert a
considerable pressure on the coastal environment. Tourism, also, exerts serious pressures
on Greek islands with small catchments and low rainfall. Salination of groundwater is a
frequent consequence of overexploitation of the aquifers to meet the increased water
demand in the dry summer months. Overall, the relationship between the ?lm storyline and
tourism is examined further in the destination marketing ?eld, but it is well-documented in
terms of the environment that negative impacts attributed to ?lm tourism re?ect the negative
impacts generally attributed to tourism; multi-use for natural and cultural environment
(Heitmann, 2010, Forsyth, 2002, Bolan et al., 2007) that may dramatically alter those natural
elements that people want to experience.
This love and death dilemma is witnessed in the Maya Bay, located in Phi Phi Lae island
nature reserve, in Thailand, which was used as the main location for the movie The Beach
(2000), and also as a main factor of the ?lm plot. The Beach re?ects as well as helps
promote eco- and adventure tourism in Southeast Asia, where “nature” is now a focus for
the tourist gaze and is being mythologized in particular ways (Markwell, 2001,
Kontogeorgopoulos, 2004). The ?lm can be considered a “staging” of the tropical
environment for ?lm viewer and traveler fantasies, combining impressions of a mythical
Eden with long-standing images of the paradisical/pestilential tropics (Law et al., 2007). A
dispute concerning The Beach started when the Thai Royal Forestry Department (RFD)
permitted the creation of the ?lm in the national park in Phi Phi Islands and the ?lm crew
decided to change the physical properties of the selected beach in Maya Bay, more
aligned with Western expectations of what the tropics “should” look like (Law et al., 2007).
The ?lming raised the concern of local environmentalists and the resulting campaign
focused on both the illegitimacy and ecological damage of the ?lming. Although the main
focus of the dispute on the ecological disaster of the ?lming was overstated to gain
legitimacy for the campaign against the undemocratic behavior of the RFD (Forsyth, 2002),
the consequent ?lm tourism resulted in extensive environmental damage to Phi Phi Lae
Island (Cohen, 2005).
The Beach is not only the ?rst cinematic intervention to shape tourist nature-loving
imaginings but also raise environmental concern of locals. The movie Deliverance (1972)
triggered an outdoor tourism boom in the Chattooga River region of Northwest US and
created environmental impacts through overdevelopment and pollution (Silver, 2007). The
Chattooga River provides important outdoor recreation resources for visitors, such as
?shing, whitewater boating, hiking, swimming, camping, hunting and related opportunities.
Use of the river was catalyzed by the movie Deliverance, which was partially ?lmed on the
river and, in turn, has led to concern about visitor impacts (Whittaker and Shelby, 2007) and
appeals by environmental groups. Similarly, in the UK, after the success of the TV series
Pride and Prejudice (1996), the Friends of the Lake District expressed concern over
negative social and environmental impacts on the area, which lies within the National Park
of England. Nature-based tourism is a major industry in the area and the Lakes District
Council had already adopted a “?lm friendly” policy to attract ?lm production and visitors.
However, the Friends of the Lake District, the only charity wholly dedicated to protecting
Cumbria’s landscape, were concerned that money would have to be diverted from other
community projects to repair wear and tear and provide additional infrastructure and
services to ?lm tourists (Beeton, 2005) in an area which already suffers from soil erosion
caused by walking on over-used paths.
However, when the ?lm industry is taking advantage of the natural surroundings, are
consequences always undesirable? Conversely, Wearing et al. (2011) note the positive
effects for conservation linked with ?lm tourism. Their conceptual approach, with the use of
the popular ?lm series Free Willy (1993, 1995, 1997, 2010) as a case study, provides an
interesting perspective on how new tourism niche markets, such as dolphin and whale
PAGE 196 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOL. 8 NO. 2 2014
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watching, are strongly in?uenced by nature-related ?lms. Researchers reveal the potential
for ?lm-induced ecotourism, as they observe that Free Willy ?lms induced and inspired
people to seek whale watching experiences. The ?lm also triggered a heavy published
attempt to return the orca whale star of the ?lm from captivity to the wild. Therefore, it seems
that ?lm tourism and ecotourism can be compatible. The key to accomplish such a goal is
that tourism industry stakeholders provide sustainable forms of ?lm induced ecotourism,
where satisfying tourists’ experience is still possible but not detrimental to the environment.
3. Implications and perspectives
Planners and administrators of national parks and other protected areas face increasing
challenges in managing the popularity of these natural areas as ?lm tourism destinations,
while ensuring their ecological integrity. Environmental and tourism planning is often a
contested political activity involving multiple, interdependent stakeholders with diverse and
possibly divergent interests and values with respect to the natural environment, therefore
public and private involvement in tourism and environmental decision-making facilitates
implementation of sustainability (Jamal et al., 2002). By recognizing the potential bene?ts
of on-location ?lm-induced tourism, a community has the potential to use the bene?ts to
strengthen itself, but to accomplish such a goal, communities should actively participate
and be involved in the management process, and then impacts on the physical
environment can be kept to the minimum (Heitmann, 2010).
In general, tourism policy planning has followed a signi?cant turn to participatory
approaches toward the development of sustainable tourism, and environmental education
is that kind of process that will enable tourism policy planners to raise environmental
awareness of tourism stakeholders, empower partnerships among them and alter their
behaviors toward sustainable tourism development (Skanavis et al., 2004; Skanavis and
Sakellari, 2011; Sakellari and Skanavis, 2013a, 2013b). Emphasis on citizenship, problem
solving and issue identi?cation have been demonstrated as the main environmental
education objectives at the declaration of the UNESCO-UNEP Belgrade workshop and in
1977, at the Tbilisi Declaration, at the UNESCO-UNEP Tbilisi ? 10 international congress in
Moscow, in 1987; in 1992, at the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development in Rio de Janeiro; and at the United Nations World Summit on Sustainable
Development, held in Johannesburg in 2002. Environmental education is a lifelong process
which focuses on promoting responsible citizenship behavior that is to acquire skills for
critical evaluation and active participation in the environmental decision-making process. In
this regard, behavior change theories have been applied by environmental education
researchers to create new patterns of behavior toward the environment (Hines et al., 1987;
Hungerford and Volk, 1990, Ajzen, 1991). Environmental education research concentrates
on personal behavioral change toward individual environmental action at all levels;
however, there has been a growing recognition of the need for individuals to address the
environmental issues also through collective civic action (Levy and Zint, 2013).
Environmental education programs are usually imagined as only based in formal
educational settings, that is school, college and university system, provided by state,
regional, municipal and local educational authorities, but informal or non-formal settings
can also be considered. Non-formal education occurs outside the formal school system,
but through other organized learning settings, e.g. youth groups, women’s associations,
zoo and park program, extension systems, community and church organizations, adult
literacy classes and other settings to provide information and encourage practices that
protect the environment, while informal education reaches audiences outside organized
groups. It is provided by news media, traditional and entertainment media, community
mobilization efforts and other channels of communication (Fien et al., 2001). However, Falk
and Dierking have argued (Falk and Dierking, 1992, 1998, 2000, 2002) that the terms
non-formal and informal learning are problematic because the distinction between formal,
non-formal and informal has more to do with the settings in which the educational
VOL. 8 NO. 2 2014 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 197
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experiences are offered than the nature of the learning experience. Thus, they use the term
free-choice learning to refer to those types of self-directed learning that occur when
individuals exercise signi?cant choice and control over their learning (Skanavis et al.,
2005).
?he ?eld of environmental education provides sound pedagogical approaches, curricula
and assessment strategies both in formal and informal educational settings that empowers
people of all ages to actively participate in the environmental decision-making process
(Sakellari and Skanavis, 2013a). Given the turn of tourism policy planning to participatory
approaches, environmental educators can create more meaningful environmental policy
processes through the facilitation of social learning (Wojcik et al., 2013). In this regard,
frameworks for environmental education strategies have been proposed (Fien et al., 2001;
Scott and Gough, 2003; Monroe et al., 2007) following Hungerford et al. (1980) Goals for
Curriculum Development and NAAEE’s Guidelines for Excellence (NAAEE, 2000), the two
most important efforts to set of guidelines for the development of environmental education
programs based on the concepts of environmental awareness, knowledge, attitudes, skills,
and participation introduced at Tbilisi Intergovernmental Conference in Georgia, USSR in
1977 (UNESCO, 1980). Those new versions of environmental education strategies
frameworks emphasize the need for conveying information and capacity building, but lack
a consideration of the presence of multiple educators, information sharing and cooperation
within organizations of and among environmental educators (Oo et al., 2010). To address
these challenges, Monroe (2011) sets four guidelines for educators who work with
community members, trying to engage them in complex environmental issues:
1. engage citizens and experts, thus allowing for citizens and experts to join forces
recognizes that the issue is complex, that citizens must gain information in order to
contribute to the decision-making process and that the experts do not have all the
answers;
2. establish a neutral atmosphere to both build trust and allow for learning to occur;
3. allow for the transformation of the issue new ways of solving the problemmay arise; and
4. enable participants to share their concerns and feelings with decision makers, as an
important outcome of the process.
To enhance our broader understanding of how environmental educators can develop
citizens’ participatory skills, Levy and Zint (2013) propose a framework for fostering
environmental political participation, based on existing research that environmental
political ef?cacy and interest are likely to in?uence environmental civic engagement:
provide learners with opportunities to learn about and process political information
within the context of environmental and sustainability issues and to clarify complex
political realities while avoiding expressing excessive pessimism;
provide learners with opportunities to have their voices heard on environmental and
sustainability issues, taking part in democratic decision-making experiences; and
foster a sense of belonging through creating supportive groups that are collectively
working to address environmental or sustainability challenges.
Both frameworks provide guidance for educators interested in engaging communities in
environmental decisions. There are many methods to accomplish these criteria, such as
citizens’ panels, workshops, community forums, community meetings or internet. On the
other hand, ?lmmakers and local planners who are aware a movie is being made can build
environmental education efforts into the ?lming, distribution and promotion of the movie.
Film crew training program such as short-term intensive workshops or lectures relating to
the involvement of ?lm crew in conservation actions for the successful management of
natural areas are useful environmental educational interventions. Ultimately, local planners
can facilitate networking of ?lm industry with local communities and establish of a
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meaningful two-way communication ?ow and knowledge sharing to give to the local people
the opportunity to participate and to incorporate their needs, perceptions and interests
during the ?lming and promotion of the movies. However, although environmental
education theory and practice lay the foundation for strengthening stakeholders’
participation in sustainable tourism issues, both remain absent from the tourism policy
planning integration with sustainability. In particular, environmental education is treated
only as a tool of managing the interaction of tourists with the natural environment and
literature neglects a range of educational methods and strategies that already exist which
could support effective education responses that tourism stakeholders can make informed
environmental decisions about sustainable tourism development (Sakellari and Skanavis,
2013b).
Overall, sustainable ?lm tourism planning has not yet received much attention (Heitmann,
2010). Within the context of a rapidly growing ?lm industry, ?lm tourism can occur very
quickly and unpredictable giving to communities little time to respond in a planned and
systematic way and much of the outcome of this type of research relates to destination
marketing activity and strategic ?lm tourism planning (Connell, 2012). Although the
environmental impacts are perhaps the most severe consequences of sudden in?ux of
special interest tourist, especially in protected areas, ?lm tourism planning hasn’t yet
focused on the tools for environmentally sound management of a destination. Film tourism
literature neglects that successful planning should ensure the potential to inform the
appropriate environmental management of natural areas portrayed within a speci?c ?lm
production, but also the ?lm tourism industry as well. In other words, strategic destination
marketing should not only try to attract ?lm producers and visitors but also to stimulate their
conscience for nature and to increase their comprehension for values of the natural
environment. The legacy of ?lm tourism is to sustain tourism in the long-term (Beeton,
2004b) and environmental sustainability is the key to address viable economic contribution
to a destination.
4. Conclusions
Entertainment ?lms are making a deep impact on international tourism development, with
popular movies playing an increasingly in?uential role in tourists’ choice of holiday
destination. Areas of high natural value are frequently used as ?lm locations, their image as
a nature-loving escape paradise emerges and is coincided with a growth of ?lm induced
visitors, willing to participate in nature-based activities. Tourism has always been a
fundamental component of the areas of high natural value concept and with this unparalled
growth of the ?lm tourism and the ecotourism, it was inevitable that one day they will meet
and interact in natural areas. This paper looks at the relationship between ?lm tourism and
ecotourism suggests that the two are compatible if tourism policy planners follow
strategies, such as environmental education initiatives, to inform appropriate environmental
management of ?lm tourism planning and enhance environmental sustainability of a
destination.
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Education, Sigri Lesvos, 24-26 September.
About the author
Maria Sakellari, PhD is a Senior Researcher in Environmental Communication and
Education at the Natural History Museum of Crete, University of Crete. Her research
interests include media treatment of environmental issues, climate change and society,
sustainable tourism and conservation issues. Maria Sakellari can be contacted at:
[email protected]
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doc_232253396.pdf
This paper aims to look at the relationship between film tourism and ecotourism and
questions whether the two are compatible or mutually exclusive.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Film tourism and ecotourism: mutually exclusive or compatible?
Maria Sakellari
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Film tourism and ecotourism: mutually
exclusive or compatible?
Maria Sakellari
Maria Sakellari is a Senior
Researcher at the Natural
History Museum of Crete,
University of Crete,
Heraklion, Greece.
Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to look at the relationship between ?lm tourism and ecotourism and
questions whether the two are compatible or mutually exclusive.
Design/methodology/approach – Entertainment ?lms are making a deep impact on international
tourism development, with popular movies playing an increasingly in?uential role in tourists’ choice of
holiday destination. Areas with high natural value are frequently used as ?lm locations, their image as a
nature-loving escape paradise emerges and is coincided with a growth of ?lm-induced visitors, willing
to participate in nature-based activities. Tourism has always been a fundamental component of the
areas of high natural value concept, and with this unparalled growth of the ?lm tourism and ecotourism,
it was inevitable that one day they will meet and interact in natural areas. This paper provides case
studies where ?lmic intervention shapes tourist nature-loving imaginings, triggers ecotourism activities
but also raises environmental concern of locals, and ?lms like The Beach (2000) and Deliverance (1972)
and the TV series Pride and Prejudice (1996) are subject to discussion.
Findings – In many cases, the natural areas have not the carryingcapacity to cope with large increases
in ?lm-induced visitors, and this results in a number of possible undesirable consequences, from the
loss of privacy to the destruction of the natural environment. This paper suggests that ?lm tourism and
ecotourismare compatible if tourismpolicy planners followstrategies, such as environmental education
initiatives, that engage ?lm tourism stakeholders and the ?lm industry in creating solutions to
environmental challenges.
Originality/value – Film tourism planning hasn’t yet focused on the tools for environmentally sound
management of a destination. This paper argues that ?lm tourism literature needs to develop marketing
and policy perspectives to inform appropriate environmental management of ?lm tourism planning and
enhance environmental sustainability of a destination.
Keywords Conservation, Environmental education, Ecotourism, Film tourism, Natural areas, Holiday
destinations
Paper type Research Paper
1. Film tourism and ecotourism
The media have become a major vehicle of awareness and style leadership, and they have
brought the wonders of the world and the excitement of various remote natural
environments to millions of people (Coates, 1991). Having been exposed repeatedly to
these things, the desire to see and experience them becomes more powerful (Kaufman,
1983). In this regard, ?lms play a key role in in?uencing people’s perceptions of a
destination prior to their arrival (O’Connor et al., 2010). Film tourism, visitation of a site or a
location, that is or has been used for or is associated with ?lming (Buchmann et al., 2010)
is a growing phenomenon worldwide, fuelled by both the growth of the entertainment
industry and the increase in international travel (Hudson and Ritchie, 2006). Film tourism
generates an increase in visitor numbers and subsequent rise in revenues and employment
(Riley and Van Doren, 1992; Tooke and Baker, 1996; Hudson and Ritchie, 2006), broadens
visitors market (Scho?eld, 1996), alleviates problems of seasonability (Beeton, 2004a) and
draws visitors year after year (Riley et al., 1998). Popular ?lms that have been subject to
academic discussion include Lord of the Rings (Tzanelli, 2004; Beeton, 2005; Jones and
Received 4 September 2013
Revised 17 January 2014
18 March 2014
Accepted 19 March 2014
PAGE 194 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOL. 8 NO. 2, 2014, pp. 194-202, © Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/IJCTHR-09-2013-0064
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Smith, 2005; Carl et al., 2007), The Beach in Thailand (Forsyth, 2002;Tzanelli, 2006; Law et
al., 2007), Notting Hill in London (Busby and Klug, 2001), Ned Kelly in Australia (Beeton,
2004a, 2004b; Frost, 2006), Ballykissangel in Northern Ireland (Barton, 2000; Bolan et al.,
2007) and Captain Corelli’s Mandolin in Cephalonia (Hudson and Ritchie, 2006).
Films tend to be more successful in attracting ?lm tourists if the storyline and site are closely
interrelated, the ?lm involves the audience in the story giving them an emotional experience
that they can link with the location, and if the ?lm re?ects an authentic image of the
destination and captures the essence of a place, whether it is scenery or cultural content
(Tooke and Baker, 1996, Grihault, 2003). In USA, the National Park system is incredibly
diverse, ranging from ?agship parks (Yellowstone and Yosemite) to smaller urban parks
(Golden Gate, National Mall and Fire Island), and National Battle?eld and Historic sites and
with sprawling acres of natural beauty; its ubiquity is forever immortalized in many hit
Hollywood movies. In this regard, parks of?cials often collaborate with ?lm commissions
and producers, encouraging ?lming to attract visitors.
If we take the argument of Heitmann (2010) that ?lms trigger existing types of tourism, then
with this unparalled growth of the ?lm tourism and the ecotourism, it was inevitable that one
day they will meet and interact in natural parks. Ecotourism is the responsible tourism in
natural areas able to facilitate conservation objectives (Tisdell and Wilson, 2005; Blangy
and Wood, 1993; Yu et al., 1997; Maharana et al., 2000). Despite criticism that is closely
related to free-market, a business that has to compete along with other businesses and
focus on pro?t rather on conservation (Duffy, 2002) and that in some cases produces
negative impacts on natural resources (Ballantyne and Pickering, 2012), the ?eld of
ecotourism is still very popular among tourism theorists and practitioners as a form of
tourism that minimizes the negative aspects of conventional tourism on the environment
and the culture identity of local communities. Ecotourism involves visiting protected areas
such as national parks and reserves, which now cover ? 12 per cent of the world’s land
area (Chape et al., 2005) and play a major role in conserving sensitive ecosystems.
Ecotourism has always been a fundamental component of the areas of high natural value
concept; however, in many cases the natural areas have not the carrying capacity to cope
with large increases in ?lm-induced visitors, and this results in a number of possible
undesirable consequences, from the loss of privacy to the destruction of the natural
environment.
2. Natural parks and movies: a love and death dilemma
The physical environment can relate to the storyline of a ?lm in varying degrees from being
a passive backdrop to the action, as in many old Westerns, right through to being an
integral part of the storyline (Beeton, 2005). The Australian movies that attracted interest in
the USA used the natural environment as a backdrop to the action, there was interaction
and struggle of man with that environment and the lifestyles depicted were relatively
uncomplicated (Riley and Van Doren, 1992). Greek ?lms gained international attention with
Stella (1955), directed by Michael Cacoyannis, Never on Sunday (1960), directed by Jules
Dassin, and Zorba the Greek (1964), directed by Michael Cacoyannis. As a result, the
international image of Greece as a fun-loving tourist resort and escapist paradise emerged
and coincided with an unprecedented growth of the tourist industry in the 1960s. Also,
Greek ?lms musicals, such as Some Like it Cold (1963), Girls for Kisses (1965) and
Mermaids and Lads (1969), promoted domestic tourism because they treated their viewers
as virtual tourists, offering them a two-hour wishful ful?llment without any costly physical
displacement (Papadimitriou, 2000). Greece accepted crowds of tourists and, as it is
located in the center of the Mediterranean, the country was transformed to one of the two
main tourist destinations worldwide, the other being North-central America (Mesplier and
Bloc-Dureffour, 1997). This peaceful “invasion” of other cultures in Greece affected every
aspect of Greek life, from bank accounts and self-awareness to appearance and language
(Costantinidis, 2000), and altered the natural environment. The main driving force behind
VOL. 8 NO. 2 2014 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 195
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coastal environmental degradation in Greece is extensive tourism-driven urbanization.
Sprawl of often illegal summerhouses and rooms-to-let, attraction of a range of diverse
economic activities and the high density of roads and other transport infrastructure exert a
considerable pressure on the coastal environment. Tourism, also, exerts serious pressures
on Greek islands with small catchments and low rainfall. Salination of groundwater is a
frequent consequence of overexploitation of the aquifers to meet the increased water
demand in the dry summer months. Overall, the relationship between the ?lm storyline and
tourism is examined further in the destination marketing ?eld, but it is well-documented in
terms of the environment that negative impacts attributed to ?lm tourism re?ect the negative
impacts generally attributed to tourism; multi-use for natural and cultural environment
(Heitmann, 2010, Forsyth, 2002, Bolan et al., 2007) that may dramatically alter those natural
elements that people want to experience.
This love and death dilemma is witnessed in the Maya Bay, located in Phi Phi Lae island
nature reserve, in Thailand, which was used as the main location for the movie The Beach
(2000), and also as a main factor of the ?lm plot. The Beach re?ects as well as helps
promote eco- and adventure tourism in Southeast Asia, where “nature” is now a focus for
the tourist gaze and is being mythologized in particular ways (Markwell, 2001,
Kontogeorgopoulos, 2004). The ?lm can be considered a “staging” of the tropical
environment for ?lm viewer and traveler fantasies, combining impressions of a mythical
Eden with long-standing images of the paradisical/pestilential tropics (Law et al., 2007). A
dispute concerning The Beach started when the Thai Royal Forestry Department (RFD)
permitted the creation of the ?lm in the national park in Phi Phi Islands and the ?lm crew
decided to change the physical properties of the selected beach in Maya Bay, more
aligned with Western expectations of what the tropics “should” look like (Law et al., 2007).
The ?lming raised the concern of local environmentalists and the resulting campaign
focused on both the illegitimacy and ecological damage of the ?lming. Although the main
focus of the dispute on the ecological disaster of the ?lming was overstated to gain
legitimacy for the campaign against the undemocratic behavior of the RFD (Forsyth, 2002),
the consequent ?lm tourism resulted in extensive environmental damage to Phi Phi Lae
Island (Cohen, 2005).
The Beach is not only the ?rst cinematic intervention to shape tourist nature-loving
imaginings but also raise environmental concern of locals. The movie Deliverance (1972)
triggered an outdoor tourism boom in the Chattooga River region of Northwest US and
created environmental impacts through overdevelopment and pollution (Silver, 2007). The
Chattooga River provides important outdoor recreation resources for visitors, such as
?shing, whitewater boating, hiking, swimming, camping, hunting and related opportunities.
Use of the river was catalyzed by the movie Deliverance, which was partially ?lmed on the
river and, in turn, has led to concern about visitor impacts (Whittaker and Shelby, 2007) and
appeals by environmental groups. Similarly, in the UK, after the success of the TV series
Pride and Prejudice (1996), the Friends of the Lake District expressed concern over
negative social and environmental impacts on the area, which lies within the National Park
of England. Nature-based tourism is a major industry in the area and the Lakes District
Council had already adopted a “?lm friendly” policy to attract ?lm production and visitors.
However, the Friends of the Lake District, the only charity wholly dedicated to protecting
Cumbria’s landscape, were concerned that money would have to be diverted from other
community projects to repair wear and tear and provide additional infrastructure and
services to ?lm tourists (Beeton, 2005) in an area which already suffers from soil erosion
caused by walking on over-used paths.
However, when the ?lm industry is taking advantage of the natural surroundings, are
consequences always undesirable? Conversely, Wearing et al. (2011) note the positive
effects for conservation linked with ?lm tourism. Their conceptual approach, with the use of
the popular ?lm series Free Willy (1993, 1995, 1997, 2010) as a case study, provides an
interesting perspective on how new tourism niche markets, such as dolphin and whale
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watching, are strongly in?uenced by nature-related ?lms. Researchers reveal the potential
for ?lm-induced ecotourism, as they observe that Free Willy ?lms induced and inspired
people to seek whale watching experiences. The ?lm also triggered a heavy published
attempt to return the orca whale star of the ?lm from captivity to the wild. Therefore, it seems
that ?lm tourism and ecotourism can be compatible. The key to accomplish such a goal is
that tourism industry stakeholders provide sustainable forms of ?lm induced ecotourism,
where satisfying tourists’ experience is still possible but not detrimental to the environment.
3. Implications and perspectives
Planners and administrators of national parks and other protected areas face increasing
challenges in managing the popularity of these natural areas as ?lm tourism destinations,
while ensuring their ecological integrity. Environmental and tourism planning is often a
contested political activity involving multiple, interdependent stakeholders with diverse and
possibly divergent interests and values with respect to the natural environment, therefore
public and private involvement in tourism and environmental decision-making facilitates
implementation of sustainability (Jamal et al., 2002). By recognizing the potential bene?ts
of on-location ?lm-induced tourism, a community has the potential to use the bene?ts to
strengthen itself, but to accomplish such a goal, communities should actively participate
and be involved in the management process, and then impacts on the physical
environment can be kept to the minimum (Heitmann, 2010).
In general, tourism policy planning has followed a signi?cant turn to participatory
approaches toward the development of sustainable tourism, and environmental education
is that kind of process that will enable tourism policy planners to raise environmental
awareness of tourism stakeholders, empower partnerships among them and alter their
behaviors toward sustainable tourism development (Skanavis et al., 2004; Skanavis and
Sakellari, 2011; Sakellari and Skanavis, 2013a, 2013b). Emphasis on citizenship, problem
solving and issue identi?cation have been demonstrated as the main environmental
education objectives at the declaration of the UNESCO-UNEP Belgrade workshop and in
1977, at the Tbilisi Declaration, at the UNESCO-UNEP Tbilisi ? 10 international congress in
Moscow, in 1987; in 1992, at the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development in Rio de Janeiro; and at the United Nations World Summit on Sustainable
Development, held in Johannesburg in 2002. Environmental education is a lifelong process
which focuses on promoting responsible citizenship behavior that is to acquire skills for
critical evaluation and active participation in the environmental decision-making process. In
this regard, behavior change theories have been applied by environmental education
researchers to create new patterns of behavior toward the environment (Hines et al., 1987;
Hungerford and Volk, 1990, Ajzen, 1991). Environmental education research concentrates
on personal behavioral change toward individual environmental action at all levels;
however, there has been a growing recognition of the need for individuals to address the
environmental issues also through collective civic action (Levy and Zint, 2013).
Environmental education programs are usually imagined as only based in formal
educational settings, that is school, college and university system, provided by state,
regional, municipal and local educational authorities, but informal or non-formal settings
can also be considered. Non-formal education occurs outside the formal school system,
but through other organized learning settings, e.g. youth groups, women’s associations,
zoo and park program, extension systems, community and church organizations, adult
literacy classes and other settings to provide information and encourage practices that
protect the environment, while informal education reaches audiences outside organized
groups. It is provided by news media, traditional and entertainment media, community
mobilization efforts and other channels of communication (Fien et al., 2001). However, Falk
and Dierking have argued (Falk and Dierking, 1992, 1998, 2000, 2002) that the terms
non-formal and informal learning are problematic because the distinction between formal,
non-formal and informal has more to do with the settings in which the educational
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experiences are offered than the nature of the learning experience. Thus, they use the term
free-choice learning to refer to those types of self-directed learning that occur when
individuals exercise signi?cant choice and control over their learning (Skanavis et al.,
2005).
?he ?eld of environmental education provides sound pedagogical approaches, curricula
and assessment strategies both in formal and informal educational settings that empowers
people of all ages to actively participate in the environmental decision-making process
(Sakellari and Skanavis, 2013a). Given the turn of tourism policy planning to participatory
approaches, environmental educators can create more meaningful environmental policy
processes through the facilitation of social learning (Wojcik et al., 2013). In this regard,
frameworks for environmental education strategies have been proposed (Fien et al., 2001;
Scott and Gough, 2003; Monroe et al., 2007) following Hungerford et al. (1980) Goals for
Curriculum Development and NAAEE’s Guidelines for Excellence (NAAEE, 2000), the two
most important efforts to set of guidelines for the development of environmental education
programs based on the concepts of environmental awareness, knowledge, attitudes, skills,
and participation introduced at Tbilisi Intergovernmental Conference in Georgia, USSR in
1977 (UNESCO, 1980). Those new versions of environmental education strategies
frameworks emphasize the need for conveying information and capacity building, but lack
a consideration of the presence of multiple educators, information sharing and cooperation
within organizations of and among environmental educators (Oo et al., 2010). To address
these challenges, Monroe (2011) sets four guidelines for educators who work with
community members, trying to engage them in complex environmental issues:
1. engage citizens and experts, thus allowing for citizens and experts to join forces
recognizes that the issue is complex, that citizens must gain information in order to
contribute to the decision-making process and that the experts do not have all the
answers;
2. establish a neutral atmosphere to both build trust and allow for learning to occur;
3. allow for the transformation of the issue new ways of solving the problemmay arise; and
4. enable participants to share their concerns and feelings with decision makers, as an
important outcome of the process.
To enhance our broader understanding of how environmental educators can develop
citizens’ participatory skills, Levy and Zint (2013) propose a framework for fostering
environmental political participation, based on existing research that environmental
political ef?cacy and interest are likely to in?uence environmental civic engagement:
provide learners with opportunities to learn about and process political information
within the context of environmental and sustainability issues and to clarify complex
political realities while avoiding expressing excessive pessimism;
provide learners with opportunities to have their voices heard on environmental and
sustainability issues, taking part in democratic decision-making experiences; and
foster a sense of belonging through creating supportive groups that are collectively
working to address environmental or sustainability challenges.
Both frameworks provide guidance for educators interested in engaging communities in
environmental decisions. There are many methods to accomplish these criteria, such as
citizens’ panels, workshops, community forums, community meetings or internet. On the
other hand, ?lmmakers and local planners who are aware a movie is being made can build
environmental education efforts into the ?lming, distribution and promotion of the movie.
Film crew training program such as short-term intensive workshops or lectures relating to
the involvement of ?lm crew in conservation actions for the successful management of
natural areas are useful environmental educational interventions. Ultimately, local planners
can facilitate networking of ?lm industry with local communities and establish of a
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meaningful two-way communication ?ow and knowledge sharing to give to the local people
the opportunity to participate and to incorporate their needs, perceptions and interests
during the ?lming and promotion of the movies. However, although environmental
education theory and practice lay the foundation for strengthening stakeholders’
participation in sustainable tourism issues, both remain absent from the tourism policy
planning integration with sustainability. In particular, environmental education is treated
only as a tool of managing the interaction of tourists with the natural environment and
literature neglects a range of educational methods and strategies that already exist which
could support effective education responses that tourism stakeholders can make informed
environmental decisions about sustainable tourism development (Sakellari and Skanavis,
2013b).
Overall, sustainable ?lm tourism planning has not yet received much attention (Heitmann,
2010). Within the context of a rapidly growing ?lm industry, ?lm tourism can occur very
quickly and unpredictable giving to communities little time to respond in a planned and
systematic way and much of the outcome of this type of research relates to destination
marketing activity and strategic ?lm tourism planning (Connell, 2012). Although the
environmental impacts are perhaps the most severe consequences of sudden in?ux of
special interest tourist, especially in protected areas, ?lm tourism planning hasn’t yet
focused on the tools for environmentally sound management of a destination. Film tourism
literature neglects that successful planning should ensure the potential to inform the
appropriate environmental management of natural areas portrayed within a speci?c ?lm
production, but also the ?lm tourism industry as well. In other words, strategic destination
marketing should not only try to attract ?lm producers and visitors but also to stimulate their
conscience for nature and to increase their comprehension for values of the natural
environment. The legacy of ?lm tourism is to sustain tourism in the long-term (Beeton,
2004b) and environmental sustainability is the key to address viable economic contribution
to a destination.
4. Conclusions
Entertainment ?lms are making a deep impact on international tourism development, with
popular movies playing an increasingly in?uential role in tourists’ choice of holiday
destination. Areas of high natural value are frequently used as ?lm locations, their image as
a nature-loving escape paradise emerges and is coincided with a growth of ?lm induced
visitors, willing to participate in nature-based activities. Tourism has always been a
fundamental component of the areas of high natural value concept and with this unparalled
growth of the ?lm tourism and the ecotourism, it was inevitable that one day they will meet
and interact in natural areas. This paper looks at the relationship between ?lm tourism and
ecotourism suggests that the two are compatible if tourism policy planners follow
strategies, such as environmental education initiatives, to inform appropriate environmental
management of ?lm tourism planning and enhance environmental sustainability of a
destination.
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About the author
Maria Sakellari, PhD is a Senior Researcher in Environmental Communication and
Education at the Natural History Museum of Crete, University of Crete. Her research
interests include media treatment of environmental issues, climate change and society,
sustainable tourism and conservation issues. Maria Sakellari can be contacted at:
[email protected]
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