Description
The purpose of this paper is to define the success and growth of the modern festival tourism
industry as a manifestation of the Entertainment Age, coupled with the repercussions of increasing
globalization on global tourism markets. This definition highlights the interdisciplinary fissure between
tourism and other social sciences. Additionally, the paper aims to address how modern festivals
become successful by matching the proclivities of Entertainment Age consumers.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Festival tourism and the entertainment age: interdisciplinary thought on an international travel phenomenon
Leah Noelle Bernick Soyoung Boo
Article information:
To cite this document:
Leah Noelle Bernick Soyoung Boo, (2013),"Festival tourism and the entertainment age: interdisciplinary thought on an international travel
phenomenon", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 7 Iss 2 pp. 169 - 174
Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJ CTHR-04-2013-0023
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Bing Pan, Tzung-Cheng Huan, (2013),"New perspectives on festival and events research", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and
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Stephen Litvin, Bing Pan, Wayne Smith, (2013),"Festivals, special events, and the “rising tide”", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism
and Hospitality Research, Vol. 7 Iss 2 pp. 163-168http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJ CTHR-04-2013-0022
Stephen W. Litvin, (2013),"Festivals and special events: making the investment", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
Research, Vol. 7 Iss 2 pp. 184-187http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJ CTHR-04-2013-0025
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Festival tourism and the entertainment
age: interdisciplinary thought on an
international travel phenomenon
Leah Noelle Bernick and Soyoung Boo
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to de?ne the success and growth of the modern festival tourism
industry as a manifestation of the Entertainment Age, coupled with the repercussions of increasing
globalization on global tourism markets. This de?nition highlights the interdisciplinary ?ssure between
tourism and other social sciences. Additionally, the paper aims to address how modern festivals
become successful by matching the proclivities of Entertainment Age consumers.
Design/methodology/approach – Rede?ning festival tourism as a manifestation of a social trend is
achieved by reviewing pertinent literature in several academic disciplines and by examining current
examples. This approach is meant to inspire further discussion of the trend and provides a solid basis for
future research.
Findings – This discussion is important in that it demonstrates the socio-philosophical impacts of the
Entertainment Age on the tourism industry. It stages festival tourism as a viable mechanism for
increased tourism and revenue. Examining the festival tourism industry within an Entertainment Age
context may enhance the ability of the industry to capitalize on these social trends and philosophical
changes.
Originality/value – This paper brings together several disparate concepts in an attempt to enhance the
understanding of a current tourism trend, answering the overarching question of why the rise in festival
tourism is occurring.
Keywords Tourism, International travel, Entertainment, Consumer behaviour, Social trends,
Globalization, Festival tourism, Interdisciplinary research, Event psychology, Entertainment age,
Consumer attitudes, Attendee motivation
Paper type Conceptual paper
Introduction
Far-reaching changes in the world’s social, cultural, and political structures have
considerably altered the entire scope and organization of the tourism industry
(Hollinshead, 1998). A new sense of consumer entitlement to entertainment paired with
increased globalization has caused a surge in competition between destinations. This
potent combination ‘‘has led everywhere to . . . repro?ling and ‘eventization’’’ (Van Diepen
and Ennen, 2010, p. 146). This eventization is precisely descriptive of the recent success of
festivals in the tourism industry. Getz (1989) notes that festivals’ ‘‘special appeal stems from
the innate uniqueness of each event . . . which elevates them above ordinary life’’ (p. 125).
While many scholars are quick to note that festival tourism is on the rise, there is little
speculation about how the trend ?ts into an interdisciplinary view of social change. The
embrace of festival tourism can be considered an adaptation of the industry to meet the
demands of luxury-savvy consumers. At the advent of the Entertainment Age, those
consumers comprise an expanded global market where increased connectivity allows
destinations to instantly attract global attention.
DOI 10.1108/IJCTHR-04-2013-0023 VOL. 7 NO. 2 2013, pp. 169-174, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182
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PAGE 169
Leah Noelle Bernick and
Soyoung Boo are based in
the Department of Tourism
and Hospitality
Management, The George
Washington University,
Washington, DC, USA.
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Discussion
The notion of the Entertainment Age is not a new idea; instead, it is a realization of much
academic and popular thought of socio-philosophical change that has been developing over
30 years. ‘‘The past three decades have witnessed a remarkable proliferation of diverse yet
convergent digital media technologies that have rendered entertainment messages
ubiquitous in modern society,’’ write Sayre and King (2010), who go on to state that this
pervasive shift towards media amusement may ‘‘suggest that we’re living in the entertainment
age’’ (p. xxi). Remarkably, this critical analysis of the modern psyche and its observations on
human attitudes, though salient, has yet to be signi?cantly applied to some ?elds of academic
study, including that of tourism. The failure to examine the social roots of an era is a departure
from traditional methodology; social scientists have long studied mankind within the broader
schema of his ever-changing world. In his work The Third Wave, Tof?er (1980) contends that
mega-trends are those Zeitgeist statements of an era. Our society progressed from the
Agricultural Age to the Industrial age with the rise of the machine. Finally, during the late
twentieth century, society reached the Information Age, aided by computer-based technology.
The Information Age openedthe world, globalizing business and streamlining communication.
Jamal and Kim(2005) write that ‘‘the globalization of capital, technology and labor has helped
to create a dynamic, independent landscape and a culture industry that has multiplied the
range of leisure products and places available’’ (p. 59). They consider the impact of
globalization not merely on consumer culture, but particularly on the business of tourism. In
this information-based world, producers vie for attention using the innovative,
technology-based communications that are newly available.
This globalization is a root cause of the rise in festival tourism, but only the beginning of the
socio-psychological basis of festival success. Ron Faucheux (1995) agrees that society has
‘‘slipped fromthe Information Age into the Entertainment Age, and we’re feeling the currents
of this new wave all around us. It’s changing a lot of things . . . ’’ (p. 2). Faucheaux mainly
examines politics and notes that new technology allows consumers to become inundated
with an overload of information. Consumers become more accustomed to this massive
output of data, made possible by Information Age developments. A world that seemed at
?rst to blossom with photo-streams and instantaneous live-feeds becomes an
over-stimulating backdrop for life in which even the most exciting events and happenings
disappear amidst the digital clutter. ‘‘That which entertains,’’ Faucheaux writes, ‘‘stands out
against the gray wall of text’’ (p. 2).
Rojek and Urry (1997) has noted this social concept of a consumer culture driven by
technological advancement in the framework of tourism research, though they do not apply
the terminology of the Entertainment Age. The authors characterize modern people as
travelers whether they leave their armchairs or not. Even if they do not physically travel,
modern consumers can achieve a simulated travel experience via the constant stream of
electronically-transmitted data. Convincing the Entertainment Age tourists to actually leave
home and travel requires more than simply marketing a destination for that destination’s
sake. The competition for would-be tourists’ leisure spending is much greater than ever
before, primarily because ‘‘never before in human history has so much entertainment been
so readily accessible, to so many, for so much of their leisure time’’ (Zillmann and Vorderer,
2000, p. vi). That which can persuade the tourist-consumer by snaring his attention will
inevitably be of higher demand in the global tourismmarket, and will in turn present a greater
pro?t. This is a purpose for which festival tourism seems supremely suited.
Striking increases in the marketing and advertising of festivals as mechanisms for attracting
tourists demonstrate a shift in attitudes about the nature of tourism (Litvin and Fetter, 2006,
p. 41). This mental transition parallels the socio-psychological changes wrought by the
Entertainment Age. According to a Newswire article, ‘‘Gone are the days when vacation
resorts could ?nd success simply by touting a ‘sun and fun’ message that focused on pure
luxury’’ (PR Newswire, 2009). In the same article, Amble Resorts President Ben Loomis
describes modern tourists as being ‘‘purpose-driven’’ and desiring ‘‘activities’’ and
‘‘memorable experiences’’ as part of their travel. The modern traveler-consumer is looking
for things to do, not merely places to go.
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Despite the fact that all tourism is in part a response to the desire to enjoy something beyond
the scope of the everyday experience, the modern consumer, adrift in an over-saturated
market, has exorbitant demands when selecting a destination. As an incentive, a major festival
not only provides pure entertainment, including art, music, and other cultural experiences, but
also provides a snare to garner consumer attention. This is possible because festivals remain
outside the realm of ordinary virtual and real-life experiences. As such, they ‘‘signal place
distinctiveness, create appeal, add interest, enliven image, and thus attract visitors, investors,
sponsors, and their associated revenue streams’’ (Quinn, 2006, p. 304). The laundry list of
bene?ts spurs the creation of thousands of new festivals a year, as well as the re-imagining
and re-packaging of existing events – clear indicators of changes in both the industry and in
consumer expectations. In this light, it is easy to view the rise of festival tourism as a direct
result of changes in modern social thinking that are attributed in other disciplines to society’s
movement into a new epoch. The Entertainment Age links the changed psychology of the
modern traveler to statistical evidence of increased festival tourism across the globe.
This shift in mind-sets about tourism has a signi?cant and complex impact on the industry. It
allows individual locales to attract more visitors and the increased revenue they bring based
not on a destination’s inherent features, but rather on its major events and festivals. For
example, the resort city of Virginia Beach, Virginia, recently implemented a campaign to
attract visitors by creating and supporting the summer festival: Beach Street, USA. The City
government is only too happy to co-sponsor the event series (Beach Street, USA, 2010). The
event includes biweekly ?reworks displays, live music, family ?lmshowings, food fairs, street
performances, and other events. The summer-long festival is actually comprised of many
individual events, and provides free entertainment to visitors and locals alike, and is
symptomatic of an industry-wide embrace of festival tourism. No longer does the City rely on
the beach itself, the raison d’eˆ tre for the region’s travel economy, to attract tourists.
However, in no way is this shift towards eventization more apparent than in the festivalization of
true non-events. One of the most ingenious capitalizations on the festival tourism market is the
rise of the Fall Festival, particularly throughout the Mid-Atlantic Appalachian region. Here,
hundreds of towns boost tourism annually with Fall Foliage Festivals and Fall Fests. A quick
Google search for ‘‘Fall Festival Mid-Atlantic’’ returned some 246,000 results in January 2011.
A majority of these festivals seem to have sprung up in the past 30 or 40 years, with purposes
as blunt as that of the Morgan County Fall Foliage Festival. The Festival was founded with the
express desire to ‘‘take advantage of the tourist traf?c’’ (Morgan County Fall Foliage Festival,
Inc, 2008). Turning an entire season into a festival de?es the accepted premise that special
events must recognize a unique moment in time rather than recurring experiences. Autumn
provides an impetus for seasonal tourismin this colorful region, but this entirely distinct formof
tourismhas its own marketing campaigns, bene?ts, and social roots apart fromthe creation of
special events. To festivalize the season results in a new form of travel, and symbolizes the
drive to create and maintain such festivals as tourism motivators.
In Jago and Shaw’s (1998) work, a review of literature about festival tourism summarizes
reasons why communities may choose to host festivals. These rationales include increasing
numbers of visitors to a region, injecting new energy into an older or declining tourism
economy, enhancing public perceptions of a destination, and building a ?rm base for
community pride. The use of festivals in improving the appeal of destinations is not
surprising; after all, Van Diepen and Ennen (2010) note that travel destinations do not simply
‘‘evolve’’, but are instead ‘‘constructed’’ (p. 148). Quinn (2006) reviews marketed festivals as
tourism catalysts, noting that many festivals focus on enhancing the socio-cultural
atmosphere of a destination rather than on merely attracting outsiders (p. 289). Nonetheless,
many studies view festival tourism as a force for increasing revenue by increasing traf?c.
Consideration of everything from Olympic Games to smaller events like Highland Games in
rural North Carolina (Chhabra et al., 2003) veri?es McKercher et al.’s (2006) ?nding: through
newevents, out-of-town ‘‘tourists often represent an incremental user group who can make a
net social and economic contribution’’ (p. 56) to a destination. Even in small-scale local
festivals, the economic impact can be as high as $50 per household (Hanagriff and Higgins,
2009, p. 64).
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Additional research notes that ‘‘there has been a tendency for advocates of individual
festivals to exaggerate the bene?ts to be gained from holding a festival’’ (Jackson et al.,
2005, p. 360), largely due to local pressure to muster support for festivals themselves. This
may skew research about the bene?ts of festivals, but does little to counteract the general
understanding that festival tourism is indeed on the rise. Why is this form of tourism
increasing? Is it a simple result of a love for socio-cultural experiences, historical
celebrations, and the party culture that surrounds these events? Is it directly due to the
impact these events have on a local economy?
Much industry-wide motivational research is based on the provider, asking why locales
would host events, rather than de?ning festival success as a match for attendee motivations.
Some focus purely on the consequences of festivals, never asking why they are held in the
?rst place. While evidence suggests that the success of festival tourism may be linked to
broader changes in society, Meethan recognizes a hesitancy to ‘‘view tourismas a particular
manifestation of wider social, economic, and cultural phenomena’’ on the part of many
theorists (Meethan, 2003, p. 11). A persistent gap recurs in the study of tourism,
demonstrating that ‘‘new perspectives, new understandings and new de?nitions are
needed’’ (Jamal and Kim, 2005, p. 60) to institute a framework within which the
interdisciplinary nature of travel can be more thoroughly understood. Relatively few scholars
has undertaken the task of relating trends in other social sciences to tourism(Jamal and Kim,
2005, p. 56). Resultantly, the crossover point between tourism and socio-psychology
provides endless opportunities to evaluate the traveler himself, his wants and needs, and his
impact on the tourism industry.
In addition to this article’s attempt to incorporate modern socio-philosophical bases for
festival attendance, several recent studies question attendee motivation on an individual
human level. However, they are not within the context of social constructs like the
Entertainment Age. These indicate that festival-goers choose to travel to locations they may
otherwise ignore solely because of events. Beyond this, the motivations for attending
festivals can be linked largely to a desire for entertainment and to an elemental societal
trope. Yuan et al. (2005) accomplish half this sort of work in their recent ‘‘Analysis of Wine
Festival Attendee’s Motivations . . . ’’. They summarizes motivational analyses ranging in
publication date from 1988 to 2001 (Table I in Yuan et al., 2005). These impulses for festival
attendance include excitement, escape from routine, and event novelty. Webster’s de?nition
of entertainment includes amusement, pleasure, distraction, and excitement – all suitable
desires of Entertainment Age consumers. By cross-referencing the listed ‘‘motivational
dimensions’’ with that de?nition of Entertainment Age, one can view attendees’
psycho-philosophical states within the framework of the Entertainment Age. In fact,
roughly half of the reported desires for attending festivals across 13 years of study stemfrom
a desire to be entertained. This is by no means an exhaustive psychological study; it merely
aims to incite further research on whether tourism is experiencing tremors of change as
mankind enters a new era.
Few studies have explored the connection between tourism and the Entertainment.
However, it has already begun to impact the academic structure of tourismstudies, revealing
that modernity has already affected the scholastic discipline itself. California State Fullerton’s
Center for Entertainment and Tourismopened as a direct response to ‘‘entering an age when
entertainment touches every aspect of our lives’’ (King, 2001). The Center for Entertainment
and Tourism is an educational initiative that encourages interdisciplinary studies, research,
and education on Entertainment and Tourism. The Center offers undergraduate and
graduate degree programs as well as professional development and career placement
opportunities. The homepage boasts a friendly banner that proclaims, ‘‘Welcome to the
Entertainment Age!’’
Conclusion
The interconnected study of tourism, hospitality, and events management is symbolic of the
interdisciplinary nature of all the social sciences. As such, it is imperative that focused
research should examine the points of contact between tourism and other disciplines. These
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areas of connectivity provide fertile ground for understanding the tourism industry by way of
understanding the world at large. From the discussion of ideas and literature presented
here, we can drawseveral conclusions about festival tourism. The success of festival tourism
is due, at least in part, to the social changes brought about by the Entertainment Age. The
Entertainment Age has signi?cantly impacted consumer needs and attitudes. Entering a
new epoch has markedly altered the tourism industry, though further interdisciplinary
research could improve understanding of this socio-philosophical shift. It is conceivable and
likely that the rise of festival tourism has many other sociological roots. This paper aspires to
provoke investigation of relationships between other social sciences and tourism by raising
debate on a social concept largely ignored in tourism studies; only careful research and
fruitful study will begin to bridge the knowledge gap that borders the discipline of tourism.
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Further reading
Copley, P. and Robson, I. (1996), ‘‘Tourism, arts marketing, and the modernist paradox’’, in Robinson,
M., Evans, N. and Callaghan, P. (Eds), Tourism and Culture: Image, Identity, and Marketing, Centre for
Travel and Tourism/British Education Publishers, Sunderland, pp. 15-34.
Merriam-Webster Online (2010), ‘‘Entertainment – de?nition’’, available at: www.merriam-webster.com/
dictionary/entertainment (accessed 13 September 2010).
About the authors
Leah Noelle Bernick is a student in the Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management,
School of Business, The George Washington University, USA. Leah Noelle Bernick is the
corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]
Soyoung Boo is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Tourism and Hospitality
Management, School of Business, The George Washington University, USA.
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This article has been cited by:
1. Martin Robertson, Ian Yeoman. 2014. Signals and Signposts of the Future: Literary Festival Consumption in 2050. Tourism
Recreation Research 39, 321-342. [CrossRef]
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doc_803167495.pdf
The purpose of this paper is to define the success and growth of the modern festival tourism
industry as a manifestation of the Entertainment Age, coupled with the repercussions of increasing
globalization on global tourism markets. This definition highlights the interdisciplinary fissure between
tourism and other social sciences. Additionally, the paper aims to address how modern festivals
become successful by matching the proclivities of Entertainment Age consumers.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Festival tourism and the entertainment age: interdisciplinary thought on an international travel phenomenon
Leah Noelle Bernick Soyoung Boo
Article information:
To cite this document:
Leah Noelle Bernick Soyoung Boo, (2013),"Festival tourism and the entertainment age: interdisciplinary thought on an international travel
phenomenon", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 7 Iss 2 pp. 169 - 174
Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJ CTHR-04-2013-0023
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Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
Bing Pan, Tzung-Cheng Huan, (2013),"New perspectives on festival and events research", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and
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Stephen Litvin, Bing Pan, Wayne Smith, (2013),"Festivals, special events, and the “rising tide”", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism
and Hospitality Research, Vol. 7 Iss 2 pp. 163-168http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJ CTHR-04-2013-0022
Stephen W. Litvin, (2013),"Festivals and special events: making the investment", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
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Festival tourism and the entertainment
age: interdisciplinary thought on an
international travel phenomenon
Leah Noelle Bernick and Soyoung Boo
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to de?ne the success and growth of the modern festival tourism
industry as a manifestation of the Entertainment Age, coupled with the repercussions of increasing
globalization on global tourism markets. This de?nition highlights the interdisciplinary ?ssure between
tourism and other social sciences. Additionally, the paper aims to address how modern festivals
become successful by matching the proclivities of Entertainment Age consumers.
Design/methodology/approach – Rede?ning festival tourism as a manifestation of a social trend is
achieved by reviewing pertinent literature in several academic disciplines and by examining current
examples. This approach is meant to inspire further discussion of the trend and provides a solid basis for
future research.
Findings – This discussion is important in that it demonstrates the socio-philosophical impacts of the
Entertainment Age on the tourism industry. It stages festival tourism as a viable mechanism for
increased tourism and revenue. Examining the festival tourism industry within an Entertainment Age
context may enhance the ability of the industry to capitalize on these social trends and philosophical
changes.
Originality/value – This paper brings together several disparate concepts in an attempt to enhance the
understanding of a current tourism trend, answering the overarching question of why the rise in festival
tourism is occurring.
Keywords Tourism, International travel, Entertainment, Consumer behaviour, Social trends,
Globalization, Festival tourism, Interdisciplinary research, Event psychology, Entertainment age,
Consumer attitudes, Attendee motivation
Paper type Conceptual paper
Introduction
Far-reaching changes in the world’s social, cultural, and political structures have
considerably altered the entire scope and organization of the tourism industry
(Hollinshead, 1998). A new sense of consumer entitlement to entertainment paired with
increased globalization has caused a surge in competition between destinations. This
potent combination ‘‘has led everywhere to . . . repro?ling and ‘eventization’’’ (Van Diepen
and Ennen, 2010, p. 146). This eventization is precisely descriptive of the recent success of
festivals in the tourism industry. Getz (1989) notes that festivals’ ‘‘special appeal stems from
the innate uniqueness of each event . . . which elevates them above ordinary life’’ (p. 125).
While many scholars are quick to note that festival tourism is on the rise, there is little
speculation about how the trend ?ts into an interdisciplinary view of social change. The
embrace of festival tourism can be considered an adaptation of the industry to meet the
demands of luxury-savvy consumers. At the advent of the Entertainment Age, those
consumers comprise an expanded global market where increased connectivity allows
destinations to instantly attract global attention.
DOI 10.1108/IJCTHR-04-2013-0023 VOL. 7 NO. 2 2013, pp. 169-174, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182
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PAGE 169
Leah Noelle Bernick and
Soyoung Boo are based in
the Department of Tourism
and Hospitality
Management, The George
Washington University,
Washington, DC, USA.
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Discussion
The notion of the Entertainment Age is not a new idea; instead, it is a realization of much
academic and popular thought of socio-philosophical change that has been developing over
30 years. ‘‘The past three decades have witnessed a remarkable proliferation of diverse yet
convergent digital media technologies that have rendered entertainment messages
ubiquitous in modern society,’’ write Sayre and King (2010), who go on to state that this
pervasive shift towards media amusement may ‘‘suggest that we’re living in the entertainment
age’’ (p. xxi). Remarkably, this critical analysis of the modern psyche and its observations on
human attitudes, though salient, has yet to be signi?cantly applied to some ?elds of academic
study, including that of tourism. The failure to examine the social roots of an era is a departure
from traditional methodology; social scientists have long studied mankind within the broader
schema of his ever-changing world. In his work The Third Wave, Tof?er (1980) contends that
mega-trends are those Zeitgeist statements of an era. Our society progressed from the
Agricultural Age to the Industrial age with the rise of the machine. Finally, during the late
twentieth century, society reached the Information Age, aided by computer-based technology.
The Information Age openedthe world, globalizing business and streamlining communication.
Jamal and Kim(2005) write that ‘‘the globalization of capital, technology and labor has helped
to create a dynamic, independent landscape and a culture industry that has multiplied the
range of leisure products and places available’’ (p. 59). They consider the impact of
globalization not merely on consumer culture, but particularly on the business of tourism. In
this information-based world, producers vie for attention using the innovative,
technology-based communications that are newly available.
This globalization is a root cause of the rise in festival tourism, but only the beginning of the
socio-psychological basis of festival success. Ron Faucheux (1995) agrees that society has
‘‘slipped fromthe Information Age into the Entertainment Age, and we’re feeling the currents
of this new wave all around us. It’s changing a lot of things . . . ’’ (p. 2). Faucheaux mainly
examines politics and notes that new technology allows consumers to become inundated
with an overload of information. Consumers become more accustomed to this massive
output of data, made possible by Information Age developments. A world that seemed at
?rst to blossom with photo-streams and instantaneous live-feeds becomes an
over-stimulating backdrop for life in which even the most exciting events and happenings
disappear amidst the digital clutter. ‘‘That which entertains,’’ Faucheaux writes, ‘‘stands out
against the gray wall of text’’ (p. 2).
Rojek and Urry (1997) has noted this social concept of a consumer culture driven by
technological advancement in the framework of tourism research, though they do not apply
the terminology of the Entertainment Age. The authors characterize modern people as
travelers whether they leave their armchairs or not. Even if they do not physically travel,
modern consumers can achieve a simulated travel experience via the constant stream of
electronically-transmitted data. Convincing the Entertainment Age tourists to actually leave
home and travel requires more than simply marketing a destination for that destination’s
sake. The competition for would-be tourists’ leisure spending is much greater than ever
before, primarily because ‘‘never before in human history has so much entertainment been
so readily accessible, to so many, for so much of their leisure time’’ (Zillmann and Vorderer,
2000, p. vi). That which can persuade the tourist-consumer by snaring his attention will
inevitably be of higher demand in the global tourismmarket, and will in turn present a greater
pro?t. This is a purpose for which festival tourism seems supremely suited.
Striking increases in the marketing and advertising of festivals as mechanisms for attracting
tourists demonstrate a shift in attitudes about the nature of tourism (Litvin and Fetter, 2006,
p. 41). This mental transition parallels the socio-psychological changes wrought by the
Entertainment Age. According to a Newswire article, ‘‘Gone are the days when vacation
resorts could ?nd success simply by touting a ‘sun and fun’ message that focused on pure
luxury’’ (PR Newswire, 2009). In the same article, Amble Resorts President Ben Loomis
describes modern tourists as being ‘‘purpose-driven’’ and desiring ‘‘activities’’ and
‘‘memorable experiences’’ as part of their travel. The modern traveler-consumer is looking
for things to do, not merely places to go.
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Despite the fact that all tourism is in part a response to the desire to enjoy something beyond
the scope of the everyday experience, the modern consumer, adrift in an over-saturated
market, has exorbitant demands when selecting a destination. As an incentive, a major festival
not only provides pure entertainment, including art, music, and other cultural experiences, but
also provides a snare to garner consumer attention. This is possible because festivals remain
outside the realm of ordinary virtual and real-life experiences. As such, they ‘‘signal place
distinctiveness, create appeal, add interest, enliven image, and thus attract visitors, investors,
sponsors, and their associated revenue streams’’ (Quinn, 2006, p. 304). The laundry list of
bene?ts spurs the creation of thousands of new festivals a year, as well as the re-imagining
and re-packaging of existing events – clear indicators of changes in both the industry and in
consumer expectations. In this light, it is easy to view the rise of festival tourism as a direct
result of changes in modern social thinking that are attributed in other disciplines to society’s
movement into a new epoch. The Entertainment Age links the changed psychology of the
modern traveler to statistical evidence of increased festival tourism across the globe.
This shift in mind-sets about tourism has a signi?cant and complex impact on the industry. It
allows individual locales to attract more visitors and the increased revenue they bring based
not on a destination’s inherent features, but rather on its major events and festivals. For
example, the resort city of Virginia Beach, Virginia, recently implemented a campaign to
attract visitors by creating and supporting the summer festival: Beach Street, USA. The City
government is only too happy to co-sponsor the event series (Beach Street, USA, 2010). The
event includes biweekly ?reworks displays, live music, family ?lmshowings, food fairs, street
performances, and other events. The summer-long festival is actually comprised of many
individual events, and provides free entertainment to visitors and locals alike, and is
symptomatic of an industry-wide embrace of festival tourism. No longer does the City rely on
the beach itself, the raison d’eˆ tre for the region’s travel economy, to attract tourists.
However, in no way is this shift towards eventization more apparent than in the festivalization of
true non-events. One of the most ingenious capitalizations on the festival tourism market is the
rise of the Fall Festival, particularly throughout the Mid-Atlantic Appalachian region. Here,
hundreds of towns boost tourism annually with Fall Foliage Festivals and Fall Fests. A quick
Google search for ‘‘Fall Festival Mid-Atlantic’’ returned some 246,000 results in January 2011.
A majority of these festivals seem to have sprung up in the past 30 or 40 years, with purposes
as blunt as that of the Morgan County Fall Foliage Festival. The Festival was founded with the
express desire to ‘‘take advantage of the tourist traf?c’’ (Morgan County Fall Foliage Festival,
Inc, 2008). Turning an entire season into a festival de?es the accepted premise that special
events must recognize a unique moment in time rather than recurring experiences. Autumn
provides an impetus for seasonal tourismin this colorful region, but this entirely distinct formof
tourismhas its own marketing campaigns, bene?ts, and social roots apart fromthe creation of
special events. To festivalize the season results in a new form of travel, and symbolizes the
drive to create and maintain such festivals as tourism motivators.
In Jago and Shaw’s (1998) work, a review of literature about festival tourism summarizes
reasons why communities may choose to host festivals. These rationales include increasing
numbers of visitors to a region, injecting new energy into an older or declining tourism
economy, enhancing public perceptions of a destination, and building a ?rm base for
community pride. The use of festivals in improving the appeal of destinations is not
surprising; after all, Van Diepen and Ennen (2010) note that travel destinations do not simply
‘‘evolve’’, but are instead ‘‘constructed’’ (p. 148). Quinn (2006) reviews marketed festivals as
tourism catalysts, noting that many festivals focus on enhancing the socio-cultural
atmosphere of a destination rather than on merely attracting outsiders (p. 289). Nonetheless,
many studies view festival tourism as a force for increasing revenue by increasing traf?c.
Consideration of everything from Olympic Games to smaller events like Highland Games in
rural North Carolina (Chhabra et al., 2003) veri?es McKercher et al.’s (2006) ?nding: through
newevents, out-of-town ‘‘tourists often represent an incremental user group who can make a
net social and economic contribution’’ (p. 56) to a destination. Even in small-scale local
festivals, the economic impact can be as high as $50 per household (Hanagriff and Higgins,
2009, p. 64).
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Additional research notes that ‘‘there has been a tendency for advocates of individual
festivals to exaggerate the bene?ts to be gained from holding a festival’’ (Jackson et al.,
2005, p. 360), largely due to local pressure to muster support for festivals themselves. This
may skew research about the bene?ts of festivals, but does little to counteract the general
understanding that festival tourism is indeed on the rise. Why is this form of tourism
increasing? Is it a simple result of a love for socio-cultural experiences, historical
celebrations, and the party culture that surrounds these events? Is it directly due to the
impact these events have on a local economy?
Much industry-wide motivational research is based on the provider, asking why locales
would host events, rather than de?ning festival success as a match for attendee motivations.
Some focus purely on the consequences of festivals, never asking why they are held in the
?rst place. While evidence suggests that the success of festival tourism may be linked to
broader changes in society, Meethan recognizes a hesitancy to ‘‘view tourismas a particular
manifestation of wider social, economic, and cultural phenomena’’ on the part of many
theorists (Meethan, 2003, p. 11). A persistent gap recurs in the study of tourism,
demonstrating that ‘‘new perspectives, new understandings and new de?nitions are
needed’’ (Jamal and Kim, 2005, p. 60) to institute a framework within which the
interdisciplinary nature of travel can be more thoroughly understood. Relatively few scholars
has undertaken the task of relating trends in other social sciences to tourism(Jamal and Kim,
2005, p. 56). Resultantly, the crossover point between tourism and socio-psychology
provides endless opportunities to evaluate the traveler himself, his wants and needs, and his
impact on the tourism industry.
In addition to this article’s attempt to incorporate modern socio-philosophical bases for
festival attendance, several recent studies question attendee motivation on an individual
human level. However, they are not within the context of social constructs like the
Entertainment Age. These indicate that festival-goers choose to travel to locations they may
otherwise ignore solely because of events. Beyond this, the motivations for attending
festivals can be linked largely to a desire for entertainment and to an elemental societal
trope. Yuan et al. (2005) accomplish half this sort of work in their recent ‘‘Analysis of Wine
Festival Attendee’s Motivations . . . ’’. They summarizes motivational analyses ranging in
publication date from 1988 to 2001 (Table I in Yuan et al., 2005). These impulses for festival
attendance include excitement, escape from routine, and event novelty. Webster’s de?nition
of entertainment includes amusement, pleasure, distraction, and excitement – all suitable
desires of Entertainment Age consumers. By cross-referencing the listed ‘‘motivational
dimensions’’ with that de?nition of Entertainment Age, one can view attendees’
psycho-philosophical states within the framework of the Entertainment Age. In fact,
roughly half of the reported desires for attending festivals across 13 years of study stemfrom
a desire to be entertained. This is by no means an exhaustive psychological study; it merely
aims to incite further research on whether tourism is experiencing tremors of change as
mankind enters a new era.
Few studies have explored the connection between tourism and the Entertainment.
However, it has already begun to impact the academic structure of tourismstudies, revealing
that modernity has already affected the scholastic discipline itself. California State Fullerton’s
Center for Entertainment and Tourismopened as a direct response to ‘‘entering an age when
entertainment touches every aspect of our lives’’ (King, 2001). The Center for Entertainment
and Tourism is an educational initiative that encourages interdisciplinary studies, research,
and education on Entertainment and Tourism. The Center offers undergraduate and
graduate degree programs as well as professional development and career placement
opportunities. The homepage boasts a friendly banner that proclaims, ‘‘Welcome to the
Entertainment Age!’’
Conclusion
The interconnected study of tourism, hospitality, and events management is symbolic of the
interdisciplinary nature of all the social sciences. As such, it is imperative that focused
research should examine the points of contact between tourism and other disciplines. These
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areas of connectivity provide fertile ground for understanding the tourism industry by way of
understanding the world at large. From the discussion of ideas and literature presented
here, we can drawseveral conclusions about festival tourism. The success of festival tourism
is due, at least in part, to the social changes brought about by the Entertainment Age. The
Entertainment Age has signi?cantly impacted consumer needs and attitudes. Entering a
new epoch has markedly altered the tourism industry, though further interdisciplinary
research could improve understanding of this socio-philosophical shift. It is conceivable and
likely that the rise of festival tourism has many other sociological roots. This paper aspires to
provoke investigation of relationships between other social sciences and tourism by raising
debate on a social concept largely ignored in tourism studies; only careful research and
fruitful study will begin to bridge the knowledge gap that borders the discipline of tourism.
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Copley, P. and Robson, I. (1996), ‘‘Tourism, arts marketing, and the modernist paradox’’, in Robinson,
M., Evans, N. and Callaghan, P. (Eds), Tourism and Culture: Image, Identity, and Marketing, Centre for
Travel and Tourism/British Education Publishers, Sunderland, pp. 15-34.
Merriam-Webster Online (2010), ‘‘Entertainment – de?nition’’, available at: www.merriam-webster.com/
dictionary/entertainment (accessed 13 September 2010).
About the authors
Leah Noelle Bernick is a student in the Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management,
School of Business, The George Washington University, USA. Leah Noelle Bernick is the
corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]
Soyoung Boo is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Tourism and Hospitality
Management, School of Business, The George Washington University, USA.
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This article has been cited by:
1. Martin Robertson, Ian Yeoman. 2014. Signals and Signposts of the Future: Literary Festival Consumption in 2050. Tourism
Recreation Research 39, 321-342. [CrossRef]
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