Description
A Deep analysis on Lime and Cement with testing proving that lime putty will be best for block work .
Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
INDIAN SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT AND
SCIENCE
GOVT. OF INDIA REGD. : S – 65412
ISO 9001 : 2008 CERTIFIED INSTITUTE
IADL APPROVED
MEMBER IN NCHEMS
ESOTERIC STUDY ON LIME AND CEMENT
IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENT FOR
DOCTORATE IN MANAGEMENT STUDIES
UNDER
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
BY
ANANDARAJ KANNAN
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?
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Copy right and Moral rights for the thesis are retained by the
author.
A Copy can be downloaded for personal non – commercial
research or study.
This Thesis cannot be reproduced extensively without
obtaining permission from the Author.
ANANDARAJ KANNAN
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Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
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The Content should not be changed in any way or sold
commercially in any format or medium without permission
from the Author.
DECLARATION
I, the undersigned, hereby declare that the work is
presented in the thesis entitled “ESOTERIC STUDY
ON LIME AND CEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY “in fulfillment of requirement for the
award of Doctorate in Management Science in the
Department of Construction Management.
To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied
in the thesis has not been submitted to any other
university / Institute for the award of any other
degree or diploma.
ANANDARAJ KANNAN
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Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
(ANANDARAJ KANNAN)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and Foremost, I take this opportunity to
cordially thank my teachers Mrs. Indira
Gandhi, Mrs. Rajasumathi, Mrs. Ajantha Bose
and Mr. Rajan who motivated me and guided
in correct path throughout this full thesis
from start to scratch.
I express my deep sense of Appreciation and
Gratitude to my wife Mrs. Padma Anandaraj
for providing encouragement to me and
excellent co-operation in preparing this
thesis, I cannot dream about this thesis
without her strong support.
I’m more indebted to my beloved mother
Mrs. Radha Kannan on this regards because
without her prayer I’m sure that I could not
have been completed.
Special thanks to my father Mr. Kannan
Ramasamy for his blessings, valuable
support, and unfailing inspiration throughout
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Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
the work. Without his encouragement I could
not have even planned to initiate this
research.
I am thankful for the co-operation extended
to me by my sister Ms. Ashwini Kannan for all
the system related work of this full thesis.
I would like to extend my thanks to my
brother Mr. Mohan Regional Head, Aster
Infratek Pvt.Ltd Chennai who has given full
freedom to utilize my time in this research
during my working hours and I’m proud that
my professional working experience
Originated under his guidance.
I am thank full to Mr. R Gomathi Shankar
General Manager, Aster infratek Pvt. Ltd
Chennai for keeping trust in me and my work
and he was the first person who identified my
potential.
Last but certainly I would like to express my
gratitude to my sweet little son A P Sharath
Saai for not only showing a great
understanding but managed his all
educational affairs without disturbing me .
ANANDARAJ KANNAN
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Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
If this Pursuit of mine proves worthwhile,
then ultimately that credits goes to “GOD“.
This work is not possible to present as it has
been done.
PREFACE
Before we go into the subject I would like to
say that this thesis was written to fulfill “
Doctorate of Management Science under
Construction Management “, I was engaged
in this thesis research and writing from
February 2016 to June 2016.
The aim of compiling this report has been to
give a working knowledge about lime and
cement, its usage, their characteristics, the
process of manufacture, their defects,
structure and uses in the industry, and
several other major topics to all in a
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Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
systematic way. The book is written in a clear
and easy-to-read style, presenting
fundamentals at a level that can be quickly
grasped by a beginner.
Lime has been used as a binder for stones
and brick, and as a plaster or render, for
thousands of years. The knowledge of its
properties and how to use it has only been
lost to current practice, other European
countries still use lime extensively within
construction. Almost all buildings
constructed before 1900 will have been built
using lime, which is still the vast majority of
our housing stock, and yet there is now a
huge ignorance about lime and its properties.
University degree courses do not teach the
use of lime, and new graduates are unaware
of the properties, uses and benefits of the
material. This leads to major problems in
construction, as architects and managers
specify the use of cement, a modern material
whose properties and failings over the long
term are only just being recognized.
Problems of damp and durability associated
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Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
with the use of cement may not become
apparent for 50 years or more from the time
of build. English Heritage and Historic
Scotland have banned the use of cement on
all historic buildings because it encourages
damp and can actually destroy buildings that
have stood for hundreds of years.
Cement companies are claiming that cement
has been around for hundreds of years,
implying that Portland cement has been used
throughout this time - this is simply not true.
Cement is a word we use to mean a binder
for aggregate, and in this sense can be clay,
lime, or Portland cement. Clay has been used
for thousands of years, lime has been used
for nearly as long, and hydraulic lime, which
is often called Roman cement, has also been
around since at least the time of the Romans.
The properties of lime are significantly
different from those of modern cement,
which we know as Portland cement. All
buildings constructed before the 20th
century will almost certainly have been built
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using lime, because cement was only
invented in 1824, by Joseph Aspdin, and did
not begin to be used extensively for another
100 years.
In this Thesis we will see an intense study of
physical , chemical properties of lime and
cement with one of its rare kind of
application with comparison of test results.
TABLE OF CONTENT
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Preliminaries
Title……………………………………………………………
……………………………1
Declaration……………………………………………………
…………………………2
Acknowledgement…………………………………………
………………………..3
Preface…………………………………………………………
………………………….5
Table of
Contents………………………………………………………
…………….8
Chapter 1: Cement
1.1. Introduction………………………………………
……………………10
1.2. Physical
Properties………………………………………………
…12
1.3. Chemical
Properties……………………………………………….
16
1.4. Advantages…………………………………………
………………….20
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1.5. Disadvantages……………………………………
…………………..22
1.6. Repair Method for Ferro
cement……………………………22
Chapter 2: Lime
2.1. Introduction………………………………………
……………………27
2.2. Physical
Properties………………………………………………
…29
2.3. Chemical
Properties……………………………………………….
29
2.4. Advantages…………………………………………
………………….32
2.5. Disadvantages……………………………………
…………………..32
2.6. Effect of biomineralization on Porous
Limestone…..33
Chapter 3: Famous Structures made of Lime
& Cement
3.1. Important structures made of
Concrete…………..…35
3.2. Important structures made of Lime
Stone……….…40
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Chapter 4: Strength Comparison of Lime vs.
Cement
4.1. Comprehensive strength of Lime mortar
cubes……..45
4.2. Tensile splitting strength of lime mortar
cubes………46
4.3. Comprehensive strength of O.P.C mortar
cubes…….47
4.4. Tensile splitting strength of O.P.C mortar
cubes…….48
Chapter 5: Result &
Conclusion…………………………….…………….49
Chapter 6:
References…………………………………………………
………50
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Chapter 1: Cement
1.1.
Introduction
Cement is a binder, a substance used in construction that
sets and hardens and can bind other materials together.
The most important types of cement are used as a
component in the production of mortar in masonry, and
of concrete, which is a combination of cement and
an aggregate to form a strong building material.
Cements used in construction can be characterized as
being either hydraulic or non-hydraulic, depending upon
the ability of the cement to set in the presence of water.
Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or
underwater; rather, it sets as it dries and reacts
with carbon dioxide in the air. It can be attacked by some
aggressive chemicals after setting.
Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) set and
become adhesive due to a chemical reaction between the
dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results
in mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so
are quite durable in water and safe from chemical attack.
This allows setting in wet condition or underwater and
further protects the hardened material from chemical
attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement found
by ancient Romans used volcanic ash
(activated aluminum) with lime (calcium oxide).
The word "cement" can be traced back to
the Roman term opus caementicium, used to
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describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was
made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder.
The volcanic ash and pulverized brick supplements that
were added to the burnt lime, to obtain a hydraulic
binder, were later referred to
as cementum, cimentum, cäment, and cement.
Non-hydraulic cement, such as slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide mixed with water), hardens by carbonation in
the presence of carbon dioxide which is naturally present
in the air. First calcium oxide (lime) is produced
from calcium carbonate by calcinations at temperatures
above 825 °C (1,517 °F) for about 10 hours
at atmospheric pressure:
CaCO3 ? CaO + CO2
The calcium oxide is then spent (slaked) mixing it with
water to make slaked lime (calcium hydroxide):
CaO + H2O ? Ca (OH) 2
Once the excess water is completely evaporated (this
process is technically called setting), the carbonation
starts:
Ca (OH) 2 + CO2 ? CaCO3 + H2O
This reaction takes a significant amount of time because
the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the air is low. The
carbonation reaction requires the dry cement to be
exposed to air, and for this reason the slaked lime is nonhydraulic cement and cannot be used under water. This
whole process is called the lime cycle.
Conversely, hydraulic cement hardens by hydration when
water is added. Hydraulic cements (such as Portland
cement) are made of a mixture of silicates and oxides,
the four main components being:
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Belite (2CaO·SiO2);
Alite (3CaO·SiO2);
Tricalcium aluminates (3CaO·Al2O3) (historically, and still
occasionally, called 'celite');
Brownmillerite (4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O3).
The silicates are responsible of the mechanical properties
of the cement, the Tricalcium aluminates and the
Brownmillerite are essential to allow the formation of the
liquid phase during the kiln sintering (firing). The
chemistry of the above listed reactions is not completely
clear and is still the object of research. [4]
1.2.
Physical Properties
1. Fineness
2. Soundness
3. Setting Time
4. Strength
5. Specific Gravity
6. Heat of hydration
7. Loss on Ignition
8. Color
1. Fineness
? The fineness of the cement affects the “RATE OF
HYDRATION” and thus the rate of strength gain.
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? Greater fineness increases the surface available
for hydration, causing greater early strength and
more rapid generation of heat.
? The effects of greater fineness on strength are
generally seen during the first seven days.
? The coarser cement will result in higher ultimate
strength and lower early strength gain of mortar.
? The coarse cement tends to produce pastes with
higher porosity than that produced by finer
cement. An increase of porosity causes lower
durability of concrete.
? Cement Fineness can be measured by several
methods: a) Turbid meter b) Blain Air
Permeability Apparatus. c) Test Sieves (usually
45, 75, 90, 150 micron
? Effects of Fineness Increases a) Increases Water
Requirement b) Increases Strength c) Slump loss
Increases d) Shrinkage Increases e) Setting Time
decreases f) Heat of Hydration Increases g)
Bleeding Decreases h) Air Content decreases I)
Workability decreases.
2. Soundness
? The destructive expansion is caused by
excessive amount of Free Lime (FCao) or
Magnesium Oxide (Mgo)
? ASTM C 150, Standard Specification for Portland
cement specifies a maximum autoclave
expansion of 0.80 percent for all Types of
Portland Cement.
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? There is no Specification limit for free lime for
Portland cement but Lechatlier expansion is
restricted to 10 mm maximum.
? Autoclave expansion is due to the presence of
high Magnesium Oxide and high free lime.
? Lechatlier expansion is due to the presence of
high free lime.
3. Setting Time
? Initial Set - Occurs when the paste begins to
stiffen considerably.
? Final Set - Occurs when the Cement has
hardened to the point at which it can sustain
some load.
? Cement paste setting time is affected by a
number of factors including: a) Cement fineness
Setting Time decreases when cement fineness
increases. b) Water-Cement ratio Setting Time
increases when Water-Cement ratio increases.
? Gypsum Content Setting Time increases when
Gypsum content increases.
? Admixtures setting time depends on the nature
of admixtures as some admixtures are setting
time retarders and some are setting time
enhancers.
? Setting time can give some indication of
whether or not cement is undergoing normal
hydration. Hydration – The reaction between
cement and water is known as hydration (setting
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and hardening). It is an exothermic reaction.
Exothermic Reaction – A reaction in which heat is
released is called Exothermic Reaction. There is
a drop in early strength when the setting time is
low.
4. Strength
? The most common strength test, Compressive
Strength, is carried out on a 50 mm cement
mortar or 150 mm cement concrete test
specimen. The test specimen is subjected to a
compressive load (usually from a hydraulic
machine) until failure.
? The strength can be affected by a number of
factors including: a) Water - Cement ratio b)
Cement – Fine aggregate ratio c) Type and
Grading of Aggregate d) Manner of Mixing and
Molding Specimens e) Curing Conditions f)
Moisture Content at the time of test g) Fineness
of Cement (Cement Mortar Strength is not
related to Concrete Strength. Cement paste
strength is typically used as quality control
measure).
5. Specific Gravity
? Specific Gravity is normally used in mixture
proportioning calculations.
?? ? The specific gravity of Portland cement is
generally around 3.15.
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6. Heat of hydration
? Heat generation when water and Portland
cement react.
? Heat of hydration is influenced by proportion of
C 3 S and C 3 A in the cement, but is also
influenced by water-cement ratio, fineness and
curing temperature. As each one of these factors
is increased, heat of hydration increases.
? Higher heat of hydration causes a considerable
loss in strength and regression at later ages.
7. Loss on Ignition
? The Weight loss of the sample (due to heating)
at 900 – 1000 c is called Loss on Ignition.
? A high LOI can indicate prehydration and
carbonation, which may be caused by improper
and prolonged storage or adulteration during
transportation.
? Higher LOI causes a considerable loss in strength.
8. Colour
? The normal colour of Portland Cement is grayish
green and affecting factors on change of
cement’s colour are A) In case that clinker is
burned in reducing condition or is quenched very
quickly, clinker colour turns to yellow and brown.
B) Also lightness and darkness of colour is rather
different depending on fineness of Cement.
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? Cement colour is very important visual quality
parameter to the customer. Every customer
prefers cement having darker colour.
? Colour of cement is not directly related to the
properties of cement, such as cement strength.
? In order to maintain the desired colour of cement
the percentage of Ferric & Magnesium oxides in
cement must be maintained properly.
1.3.
Chemical Properties
01. Tricalcium Silicate
02. Dicalcium Silicate
03. Tricalcium Aluminate
04. Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite
05. Gypsum
06. Free Lime
07. Chlorides
08. Alkalies
09. Insoluble Residue
01. Tricalcium Silicate
? Tricalcium Silicate hydrates and hardens rapidly
and is largely responsible for initial set and early
strength.
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? Portland Cements with higher percentages of
Tricalcium Silicate will exhibit higher early
strength
02. Dicalcium Silicate
? Heat of Hydration increases with Dicalcium
silicate
? When Tricalcium Silicate increases, reduces the
Dicalcium Silicate
? Setting time decrease
? Strength increases
03. Tricalcium Aluminate
? Tri Calcium Aluminate hydrates and hardens the
quickest. Liberates a large amount of heat
almost immediately and contributes somewhat
to early strength.
? Gypsum is added to Portland cement to retard
Tricalcium Aluminate hydration.
? In absence of Gypsum, Tri Calcium Aluminate
hydration would cause Portland cement to set
almost immediately after adding water.
? Bleeding decreases.
? Chloride Permeability decreases.
? Heat of hydration increases.
? Setting time decreases.
? Strength increases
? Sulfate Resistivity decreases.
? Water requirement increases.
? Workability decreases.
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04. Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite
? Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite hydrates rapidly but
contributes very little to strength. Its use allows
lower kiln temperature in Portland cement
manufacturing.
? Most Portland cement colour effects are due to
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite.
? The higher the Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite the
darker the colour of Cement.
05. Gypsum
? Gypsum is a setting time retarder and without
addition of gypsum ,cement cannot be produced
as Tricalcium Aluminate hydration would cause
Portland cement to set almost immediately after
adding water.
? To prevent sulfate expansion in cement, Sulfate
(SO 3 ) content in cement is established 3 – 3.5
% 3. The higher the gypsum content in cement
leads to longer the setting time.
? PowerPoint Presentation: 4. Excess of gypsum in
cement leads to the formation of Calcium
Sulfoaluminate, (Ettringite) and the formation of
Ettringite results in a volume increase in the
concrete, resulting expansion and cracks.
06. Free Lime
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? Lime (Calcium Oxide) which is not combined
with other constituents in clinker is known as
free lime.
? Free lime is a harmful component in cement and
the presence of higher free lime causes
expansion in cement and drop of early strength.
? Free lime is normally generated during burning
process.
? Higher Free lime in cement causes change of
cement colour to brown.
? Higher Free lime cements are not good binders.
07. Chlorides
?? ?Higher Chloride content in Cement leads to
corrosion of steel, which has detrimental effect
on tension wires in pre-stressed concrete.
?? ?The origin of Chlorides in Cement is mainly from
Cement raw materials.
08. Alkalies
? Higher Alkalies in Portland cement leads to
internal expansion and cracklings in concrete
structures due to the reaction between alkalies
and reactive silicious aggregates.
? The origin of Alkalies in Portland cement is
mainly from Cement raw materials and Fuel.
? Air Content increases.
? Bleeding decreases.
? Heat of hydration increases.
? Alkali Silica Reaction increases.
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?
?
?
?
?
?
Changes in setting time.
Shrinkages decreases.
Slump loss increases.
Early Strengths up, late strengths down.
Water requirement increases.
Workability decreases
09. Insoluble Residue
? A material which is not soluble in Acid and Alkali
is known as Insoluble Residue.
? Insoluble Residue is a non-cementing material
which is present in Portland cement.
? It affects the properties of cement, especially its
compressive strength. (Drop of early strength).
? The limit of Insoluble Residue given by ASTM
Standard is 0.75 percent maximum in cement.
? The contribution of Insoluble Residue in cement
is mainly from the cement additives such as
Limestone, Fly Ash, Volcanic Ash and Burnt Clay.
1.4.
Advantages
?? ?Cement is very strong.
?? ? It can create large structures quickly.
?? ? It conforms to different shapes (arcs and circles,
etc).
? It has high thermal mass (moderates
temperature).
? Cement is extremely strong, and is capable of
withstanding greater degrees of blunt force
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trauma and weather exposure than wood or
vinyl siding.
? Cement burns at a much higher temperature
than wood or vinyl does, which means that it can
withstand fires much better than traditional
types of siding.
? Besides basic cleaning, which can be done with
a power washer, cement siding usually comes
already painted, which will last upwards of ten
years before needing to be repainted.
? Concrete is economical when ingredients are
readily available.
? Concrete’s long life and relatively low
maintenance requirements increase its economic
benefits.
? It is not as likely to rot, corrode, or decay as
other building materials.
? Concrete has the ability to be molded or cast
into almost any desired shape.
? Building of the molds and casting can occur on
the work-site which reduces cost.
? Concrete is a non-combustible material which
makes it fire-safe and able to withstand high
temperatures.
?? ?It is resistant to wind, water, rodents, and
insects. Hence, concrete is often used for storm
shelters.
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1.5. Disadvantages
? Cement is subjected to cracking.
?? ?It is not ideal for situation when settlement is
expected.
? Concrete has a relatively low tensile strength
(compared to other building materials).
? Low ductility.
? Low strength-to-weight ratio.
1.6.
Repair Method for Ferro cement
Terrestrial
structures
are
susceptible
to
deterioration from pollutants in ground water
and those that precipitate from the air (acid
rain). Marine structures are attacked by sulfates
and chlorides in seawater. Environmental
temperature and humidity variations also affect
ferro cement durability and maintenance
procedures.
Maintenance primarily involves detecting and
filling voids, replacing spalled cover, providing
protective coatings, and cosmetic treatment of
surface blemishes. Not all of the usual methods
to treat conventional concrete surfaces can be
applied to ferro cement. For example, due to the
thin cover in ferro cement, muriatic acid
(hydrochloric acid) should be used with extreme
caution. Phosphoric acid and other nonchloride
cleaners should be the specified alternative.
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Protective coatings must bond well and be alkali
tolerant, thermally compatible, and resistant to
environmental
pollutants
and
ultraviolet
radiation, if exposed. Some useful information
can be derived from literature on bridge deck
repair in the Guide for Repair of Concrete Bridge
Superstructures
by
ACI
Committee
546.
Terrestrial ferro cement structures are seldom
exposed to the severe conditions encountered
by bridge decks, but the recommendations and
procedures reported by Tuthill38 and other
references listed in Reference on restoration of
deteriorated concrete provide a basis for
understanding many repair methods that are
applicable to ferro cement. Available literature
that details the methods for repair of ferro
cement is generally nontechnical and written for
repair of boat hulls. The most complete
repository of information on ferro cement
maintenance is located at the International Ferro
cement Information Center (IFIC), Asian Institute
of Technology, in Bangkok, Thailand. IFIC
publishes the Journal of Ferro cement, which is
devoted to research and applications of ferro
cement.
Many materials have been tested by government
agencies, and over 300 are listed in the
“Patching Materials” section of SPEL, Special
Product
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Blemish and stain removal:
Ferro cement is usually less porous than
conventional concrete, stains do not penetrate
very deeply in the mortar matrix. The thin cover
of mortar over ferro cement reinforcement also
means that greater care must be taken when
preparing the surface. Reference 40 discusses
stain removal for concrete. Bulletins on the
subject41,42 are based on the results of a
cooperative investigation by the U.S. Bureau of
Standards and the National Association of Marble
Dealers. All sources agree that even weak acids,
such as oxalic, carbonic, and acetic, may etch
concrete if they are left for extended lengths of
time and not neutralized or completely flushed
off.
Construction blemishes-Construction blemishes
are often caused by improper selection or use of
materials,
faulty
workmanship,
uneven
evaporation, and uneven curing.
Other causes include:
1. Cement from different mills will cause color
variation, although most of the color in mortar is
due to the sand component. Where appearance
is critical, care should be taken to obtain sand
from a single source and have it thoroughly
washed.
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2. Mottling results from the use of calcium
chloride or high-alkali cement combined with
uneven curing.
3. The use of polyethylene sheet material to
cover surfaces promotes uneven curing.
4. The water-cement ratio affects tone and
surface appearance. Low water-cement ratios
will result in a darker appearance.
5. Hard steel troweling densifies the surface,
causing more rapid drying and also leaving a
darkened surface.
Stain removal-Treatment:
Stains should be done promptly after the
discoloration appears. Thorough flushing and
brushing with a stiff bristle brush and detergent
is the first approach. If this is ineffective, a dilute
(about three percent) solution of phosphoric or
acetic acid can be applied. Another chemical
treatment considered safe and effective is a 20
to 30 solution of di-ammonium citrate, a mild
acid which attacks calcium carbonates and
calcium hydroxide. This treatment makes the
surface more porous and promotes hydration.
When a stain has penetrated too deeply to be
removed by surface chemical application and
scrubbing, a poultice or a bandage may be
needed.
A poultice is intended to dissolve the stain and
absorb it into the poultice. The poultice is made
by mixing one or more chemicals such as a
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solution of phosphoric acid with a fine inert
powder such as talc, whiting, hydrated lime, or
diatomaceous earth to form a paste. The paste is
spread in a thick layer over the stain and
allowed to dry. A bandage may consist of a few
layers of cloth or paper toweling soaked in a
chemical solution. More than one application of a
poultice or bandage may be needed for stubborn
stains. Caution: Most of the chemicals used to
remove stains are toxic and require safeguards
against skin contact and inhalation. Whenever
acids are used, surfaces should first be saturated
with water or the dissolved stain material may
migrate deeper into the concrete and reappear
at a later date as efflorescence.
Efflorescence:
When water-bearing salts migrate to exposed
surfaces of concrete, evaporation will result in
the deposit of salts on the surface. This process
is termed efflorescence. It occurs most readily in
porous concrete so it should not be a problem for
ferro cement made with a water-cement ratio of
not more than 0.4 and is well compacted to be
free of voids. Voids, if present, may fill with
water (in certain applications) and efflorescence
will appear on surfaces around the place where
water gained entrance to the void. Treatment
consists of breaking into the void, as with a
hammer, and replastering, or drilling into the
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void with a masonry bit and injecting a non
shrinking cement grout.
Chapter 2: Lime
2.1
Introduction
Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic material in which
carbonates, oxides and hydroxides predominate. Strictly
speaking, lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide. It is
also the name of the natural mineral (native lime) CaO
which occurs as a product of coal seam fires and in
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altered limestone xenoliths in volcanic eject. The word
"lime" originates with its earliest use as building mortar
and has the sense of "sticking or adhering. These
materials are still used in large quantities as building and
engineering materials (including limestone products,
concrete and mortar) and as chemical feedstock’s, and
sugar refining, among other uses. Lime industries and the
use of many of the resulting products date from
prehistoric periods in both the Old World and the New
World. Lime is used extensively for waste water
treatment with ferrous sulfate.
The rocks and minerals from which these materials are
derived, typically limestone or chalk, are composed
primarily of calcium carbonate. They may be cut, crushed
or pulverized and chemically altered. "Burning"
(calcinations) converts them into the highly caustic
material "quicklime" (calcium oxide, CaO) and, through
subsequent addition of water, into the less caustic (but
still strongly alkaline) "slaked lime" or "hydrated lime"
(calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2), the process of which is
called "slaking of lime".
When the term is encountered in an agricultural context,
it probably refers to agricultural lime. Otherwise it most
commonly means slaked lime, as the more dangerous
form is usually described more specifically as quicklime or
"burnt lime".
Limestone in the lime industry is a general term for rocks
that contain 80% or more of calcium or magnesium
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carbonates, including marble, chalk, oolite, and marl.
Further classification is by composition as high calcium,
argillaceous (clayey), siliceous, conglomerate, magnesia
and other limestone, and dolomite[3] Uncommon sources
of lime are coral, sea shells, calcite, and ankerite.
Limestone is extracted from quarries or mines. Part of the
extracted stone, selected according to its chemical
composition and granulometry, is calcinated at about
1,000 °C (1,830 °F) in different types of lime kilns to
produce quicklime according to the reaction: CaCO3 +
heat ? CaO + CO2.
Before use, quicklime is hydrated, that is combined with
water, called slaking, so hydrated lime is also known as
slaked lime, and is produced according to the reaction:
CaO + H2O ? Ca(OH)2. "Dry slaking" is when quicklime is
slaked with just enough water to hydrate the quicklime,
but remain as a powder and is referred to as hydrated
lime. In "wet slaking", enough water, but not too much, is
added to hydrate the quicklime to a form referred to as
lime putty.
Because lime has an adhesive property with bricks and
stones, it is often used as binding material in masonry
works. It is also used in whitewashing as wall coat to
adhere the whitewash onto the wall.
The process by which lime (calcium carbonate) is
converted to quicklime by heating, then to slaked lime by
hydration, and naturally reverts to calcium carbonate by
carbonation is known as the Lime Cycle. The conditions
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and compounds present during each step of the lime
cycle have a strong influence of the end product,[5] thus
the complex and varied physical nature of lime products.
2.2
Physical Properties
2.3
Chemical Properties
Limestone exist on the market, both foreign and
domestic, and these can be drastically different in
density, hardness, porosity, and aesthetics.
ASTM test data is the most common data available to
compare the properties of any stone, including limestone.
Durability
• Interior applications: lifetime
• Exterior applications: lifetime
Source: National Association of Home Builders. 2007.
Study of Life Expectancy of Home Components.
Reuse & Recyclability
• Ensure reclaimed limestone meets ASTM specifications
before using for structural purposes
• Example applications:
Concrete mixture Landscaping Retaining walls Walkways
Fill Re-installation on new buildings Statuary.
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ASTM standards:
ASTM C-568 “Standard
Dimension Stone”
Specification
for
Limestone
•
Includes
material
characteristics,
physical
requirements, and sampling appropriate to the selection
of limestone for general building and structural purposes.
• Classifies dimensional limestone into three categories:
Type I (Low density), Type II (Medium density), and Type III
(High density). The table below lists the required test
values for each type of limestone; the necessary tests are
prescribed by and located in the ASTM standards.
*
TABLE
Caco3
SiO2
Ca(Mg,fe)
(CO3)
Al2O3
Na2O
K2O
Fe2O3
Methylene
F1
99.5
0
0.5
F2
99.5
0
0.5
F3
82
15.5
2.5
F4
94.5
1.8
3.7
F5
86
6.5
7.5
F6
75
2
23
0.15
0.07
0.03
0.15
0.7
0.07
0.03
0.02
0.04
0.7
2.38
0.33
0.61
0.9
4
0.63
0.27
0.11
0.33
1.3
4.45
0.10
1.02
1.71
5
1.38
0.06
0.28
0.82
3.3
Although several physical and chemical properties of
limestone have been shown to affect limestone
neutralization capacity, particle size distribution and
CaCO3 content have been deemed adequate measures to
classify agricultural limestones. When using agricultural
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limestone to neutralize substrate acidity in horticultural
endeavors, problems of inconsistent initial pH in
substrates created using standard formulas for limestone
additions, and pH drift from the initial target in those
substrates, occur. This study was conducted to evaluate
the effects particle size, CaCO3 and MgCO3 content,
internal porosity, hardness, soundness, specific gravity,
and specific surface of limestones from twenty quarries
(selected to maximize differences in properties) on
limestone reactivity in order to determine the degree of
influence of these factors on neutralization capacity of
the limestones. Data for all these physical/chemical
properties were analyzed in multiple regressions with
particle size included and with particle size held constant
at coarse [30–50 mesh (600–300 µm)], medium [170–200
mesh (90–75 µm)], and fine [325–400 mesh (45–38 µm)]
fractions. Particle size accounted for slightly more than
half of the neutralization capacity of the limestones. With
particle size held constant, CaCO3 or MgCO3 had the
greatest impact on limestone reactivity, accounting for
about 50% of the reactivity. Specific surface did not
correlate significantly to particle size, thus addressed an
additional aspect of limestone reactivity. Porosity,
hardness and bulk density were highly correlated to each
other, thus measured the same aspect of limestone
reactivity. Soundness had little influence on reactivity.
Adding specific surface measurements to particle size
and CaCO3 content increased the power of the reactivity
prediction model to 83% of the reactivity. The addition of
a fourth measurement; either porosity, hardness or bulk
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density, increased the model strength to only 88%.
Adding specific surface measurements to the description
of limestone used for horticultural purposes would be
advantageous.
2.4
Advantages
? Concrete is easily formed into shape before it sets. It
is strong when squashed. Glass can be toughed and
used for windows. But Limestone is very valuable
natural resource.
? Quarrying limestone create jobs, which boost the
local economy.
? Cheap and availability is plentiful, most areas of the
country (UK) are within 100 miles of a source, and it’s
not too difficult to transport.
? Getting it out of the ground isn't difficult.
? No special, rare or dangerous chemicals are required
to make it usable product.
? The products it can be made into are very numerous.
? It forms very strong bonds.
2.5
Disadvantages
? Limestone, cement and mortar slowly react acid rain
and wear away, this damages walls made from
limestone and it leaves gaps between bricks.
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? Concrete is weak when bent or stretched. However
concrete can be made stronger by reinforcing it with
steel.
? Some people think concrete building and bridges are
unattractive.
? Glass is brittle and easily shattered.
? Quarrying creates noise and traffic.
? Limestone quarries can be seen from long distances.
? To make CaCO3 usable you have to convert it into
quicklime, or CaO - Calcium Oxide. this requires a lot
of heating, and for eco buffs it releases CO2 - below:
? CaCO3 + shed loads of heat to CaO + CO2
? If you use pure CaCO3 it tends to be dissolved by
acids so your wonderful stature may become a little
crumbly.
2.6 Effect of biomineralization on Porous
Limestone
? There are a handful of research groups in the world
engaged in the development of different applied
biomineralization methods and techniques. The
reason of this is that biomineralization is an
alternative candidate method for stone conservation
purposes as well as for cementation purposes
instead of the conventional, already existing
techniques, materials and methods . In Hungary, the
present research is the first one done in this field,
therefore no literature was available in this topic in
Hungarian language until 2011.
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? Applied biomineralization is based on the natural
phenomenon, that different bacteria strains are
capable of producing calcium carbonate crystals in
adequate environment. Therefore in-situ, controlled
bio-production of calcium carbonate crystals could be
used for the repair and protection of decayed
ornamental and dimension stones. However,
according to the extensive study of the scientific
literature it was clear that large-scale application of
biomineralization in stone conservation and
protection still requires preliminary investigation of
several parameters influencing the effect of
biomineralizing treatments on the stone material.
? Sedimentary rocks deteriorate rapidly under urban
circumstances leading to structural and aesthetic
problems. Total substitution of the deteriorated
stone material offers a very effective, but costly,
time-consuming and often structurally complicated
solution for the aforementioned problems.
Moreover, in some cases the original stone
material is not available anymore. In addition,
extensive quarrying of stone is harmful to the
landscape, too. In order to avoid the total
substitution of the stone material, early protection
or conservation of the original stone material of
the construction is highly desirable. Most inorganic
materials used for the protection and conservation
of porous stone (such as water-repellents,
coatings, stone consolidates) often cause harm to
the stone, being not compatible with the original
material, Moreover, they might have long-term
consequences on future conservation concerns,
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including retreat ability, durability and required
maintenance.
? As result of a biomineralizing treatment calcium
carbonate crystals are produced, therefore this
method is highly compatible with the conservation
and post-consolidation of lime-based or limebound materials (such as porous limestone, limebound sandstones, or lime mortars, as well as
bricks made of sand and lime. Moreover, the
solvent in the bio-based curing compounds is
water, not a volatile organic compound as in case
of the conventional curing compounds. Therefore
bio-based treatments do not contribute to the
green-house effect by emitting VOCs, which
increase the amount greenhouse gases (GHG). In
the future application of materials containing VOCs
will be limited or prohibited, Application of
biomineralization for conservation and restoration
purposes is based on the idea that porous
materials are capable of soak liquidized
biomineralizing compounds, and thus crystalformation can be initiated inside the material.
Chapter 3: Famous Structures Lime & Cement
3.1. Important structures made of cement
concrete….
Concrete has been a major part of construction for
thousands of years. Let’s take a look at some of the most
famous structures, new and old, that were built using
concrete.
1. The Pantheon, Rome.
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Almost two thousand years after this structure was built,
it remains the largest unreinforced concrete dome in the
world and the best preserved of all ancient Roman
buildings. The dome is composed of 4,535 metric tons of
concrete, which makes this ancient building even more
impressive when you think about how many cranes they
had (none!).
2. Burj Khalifa, Dubai.
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Once known as Burj Dubai, this skyscraper holds the title
of tallest manmade structure in the whole world at a
height of nearly 830 meters, or approximately 2725 feet.
The building officially opened in January of 2010 so it
hasn’t been around for that long. The construction of this
building broke all kinds of records, including the record for
the highest vertical concrete pumping for a building at
606 meters or nearly 2000 feet. Very impressive, but how
long is the wait for the elevators?
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2. Hoover Dam, USA.
This iconic American structure is well known for both
fictional and real life reasons. The concrete arch-gravity
dam weighs 6,600,000 tons and was built during the
Great Depression in the Black Canyon of the Colorado
River between Arizona and Nevada. The purpose of
constructing the dam was to create Lake Mead, a water
source for desert inhabitants. Today, most children
probably think there’s a giant evil robot hidden inside,
thanks to the popular movie Transformers.
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3. Panama Canal.
This 82 km (51 miles) man-made canal connects the
Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean between North
America and South America. Without this easy access
route, ships would have to sail all the way around the
continent or find a way to transport their cargo across
land, more than doubling the amount of time spent
sailing. The amount of power required for land transport
is much greater than if the cargo is on a ship. Digging the
51 mile canal was a lot of work, but definitely worth it.
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4. Willis Tower.
Formerly known as the Sears Tower, this structure was
completed in 1973 and held the rank of tallest building in
the world for nearly 25 years. This skyscraper is 442
meters or approximately 1450 feet tall. If you recall from
earlier in this article, that’s about half as big as the
current tallest building in the world, Burj Khalifa.
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3.2. Important structures made of Lime Stone
1. The Great Pyramid of Giza
The Great Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of
Khufu or the Pyramid of Cheops) is the oldest and largest
of the three pyramids in the Giza pyramid complex
bordering what is now El Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest of
the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only
one to remain largely intact.Based on a mark in an
interior chamber naming the work gang and a reference
to fourth dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu, Egyptologists
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believe that the pyramid was built as a tomb over a 10 to
20-year period concluding around 2560 BC.
2. The Pentagon
The Pentagon is the headquarters of the United States
Department of Defense, located in Arlington County,
Virginia, across the Potomac River from Washington, D.C.
As a symbol of the U.S. military, The Pentagon is often
used metonymically to refer to the U.S. Department of
Defense. The Pentagon was designed by American
architect George Bergstrom (1876–1955), and built by
general contractor John McShain of Philadelphia. Ground
was broken for construction on September 11, 1941, and
the building was dedicated on January 15, 1943. General
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Brehon Somervell provided the major motive power
behind the project;[4] Colonel Leslie Groves was
responsible for overseeing the project for the U.S. Army.
3. The Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal represents the finest and most
sophisticated example of Mughal architecture. Its origins
lie in the moving circumstances of its commission and the
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culture and history of an Islamic Mughal empire's rule of
large parts of India. The distraught Mughal Emperor
commissioned the mausoleum upon the death of his
favorite wife Mumtaz Mahal. Today it is one of the most
famous and recognisable buildings in the world and while
the domed marble mausoleum is the most familiar part of
the monument.
4. The Port of Liverpool
The Port of Liverpool Building (formerly Mersey Docks and
Harbour Board Offices, more commonly known as the
Dock Office) is a Grade II* listed building in Liverpool,
England. It is located at the Pier Head and, along with the
neighbouring Royal Liver Building and Cunard Building, is
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one of Liverpool's Three Graces, which line the city's
waterfront.[1] It is also part of Liverpool's UNESCOdesignated World Heritage Maritime Mercantile City.
5. The Charminar
The Charminar, constructed in 1591 CE, is a monument
and mosque located in Hyderabad, Telangana, India. The
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landmark has become a global icon of Hyderabad, listed
among the most recognized structures of India.[1] The
Charminar is situated on the east bank of Musi river.[2] To
the west lies the Laad Bazaar, and to the southwest lies
the richly ornamented granite Makkah Masjid.[3] It is
listed as an archaeological and architectural treasure on
the official "List of Monuments" prepared by the
Archaeological Survey of India under the The Ancient
Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act.
Chapter 4: Comparison of Lime vs. Cement
4.1. Comprehensive strength of Lime mortar cubes
(N/sq.mm)
? Lime Mortar Cubes (1:3 Lime-Sand) – Coarse
Sand
SAMPLE
1
2
3
7 DAYS
1.82
1.93
1.79
14 DAYS
2.78
2.95
2.8
28 DAYS
3.45
3.65
3.5
56 DAYS
4.85
5.1
4.77
? Lime Mortar Cubes (1:3 Lime-Sand) – Fine Sand
SAMPLE
7 DAYS
14 DAYS 28 DAYS 56 DAYS
1
2
3
1.00
1.10
0.96
1.53
1.66
1.43
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2.02
2.15
2.03
2.56
2.98
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Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
4.2. Tensile splitting strength of lime mortar
cubes
? Lime Mortar Cubes (1:3 Lime-Sand) – Coarse
Sand
SAMPLE
1
2
3
7 DAYS
14 DAYS 28 DAYS 56 DAYS
0.16
0.18
0.12
0.25
0.21
0.19
0.28
0.32
0.34
0.45
0.49
0.51
? Lime Mortar Cubes (1:3 Lime-Sand) – Fine Sand
SAMPLE
7 DAYS
14 DAYS 28 DAYS 56 DAYS
1
2
3
0.09
0.11
0.07
0.15
0.12
0.18
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0.20
0.17
0.21
0.25
0.29
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Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
4.3. Comprehensive strength of O.P.C mortar
cubes
? O P C Mortar Cubes (1:3 Cement-Sand) – Coarse
Sand
SAMPLE
1
2
3
7 DAYS
14 DAYS 28 DAYS 56 DAYS
18.90
18.24
18.42
21.70
22.56
23.05
24.33
26.59
25.65
28.74
26.86
28.92
? O P C Mortar Cubes (1:3 Cement-Sand) – Fine
Sand
SAMPLE
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14 DAYS 28 DAYS 56 DAYS
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1
2
3
14.80
15.42
15.44
15.20
15.46
16.55
16.23
16.99
16.75
17.34
18.26
18.22
4.4. Tensile splitting strength of O.P.C mortar
cubes
? O P C Mortar Cubes (1:3 Cement-Sand) – Coarse
Sand
SAMPLE
7 DAYS
14 DAYS 28 DAYS 56 DAYS
1
2
3
1.93
2.37
2.49
2.23
2.35
2.12
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2.38
2.58
2.33
3.04
3.26
3.40
Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
? O P C Mortar Cubes (1:3 Cement-Sand) – Fine
Sand
SAMPLE
7 DAYS
14 DAYS 28 DAYS 56 DAYS
1
2
3
1.38
1.57
1.49
1.74
1.81
1.62
1.99
2.09
1.84
2.34
2.26
2.5
Chapter 5: Conclusion
?? ? ? ? ?The above results suggest that using coarse
sand in lime mortar gives better results
(approximately 50% increase in comprehensive
strength) than using fine sand. This suggests that for
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practical reasons coarse sand should be used to
improve carbonation and eventually compressive and
tensile splitting strength. The coarse sand used in
this study contained a high percentage of 5mm
particles. This size of particles will not cause any
problem in stonework or block work but it will cause
some problems in brickwork. In all cases the 5mm
particles can be changed to 4mm particles for better
workability and ease of construction. Data printed
within this section has been prepared in Regional
Testing Centre Sultanate of Oman.
Notes:
COARSE GRAINED SOIL
Particles having diameter larger than 4.75 mm is
called Gravel and particles having diameter in
between 4.75 mm to 75 micron is called Sand
FINE GRAINED SOIL
Particles having diameter in between 75 micron to 2
micron are called Silt and particles having diameter
smaller than 2 micron is called Clay.
Chapter 6: References
? American Society for Testing and Materials,
West Conshohocken, PA, U.S.A.
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? ASTM C 1489. Standard Specification for Lime
Putty for Structural Purposes
? ASTM, C 206. Standard Specification for
Finishing Hydrated Lime.
? ASTM, C 207. Standard Specification for
Hydrated Lime for Masonry Purposes
? ASTM, C 5. Standard Specification for Quicklime
for Structural Purposes.
? ASTM C270. Standard Specification for Mortars
for Unit Masonry.
? California Historical Building Code, 2001.
California Code of Regulations, Title 24, Part 8.
Alternative Regulations for qualified historical
buildings.
? Cochrane, William G., Sampling Techniques.
New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc,1977.
? Franklin, J. A., Kemeny, J.M. and Girdner, K. K.,
Evolution of measuring systems: A review
Proceedings of the FRAGBLAST 5 Workshop on
Measurement of Blast Fragmentation, Montreal,
Quebec, Canada, 23-24 Aug., 1986, pp. 47-52.
? Vito C.d, Ferrini V., Mignardi S., Piccardi L.,
Rosanna T., Journal of Archaeological Science,
2004, 31(10), 1391-1393.
? Marinoni N., Pavese A., Bugini R., Silvestro G.d,
Journal of Cultural Heritage, 2003, 3(4), 241249.
ANANDARAJ KANNAN
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doc_723274891.docx
A Deep analysis on Lime and Cement with testing proving that lime putty will be best for block work .
Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
INDIAN SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT AND
SCIENCE
GOVT. OF INDIA REGD. : S – 65412
ISO 9001 : 2008 CERTIFIED INSTITUTE
IADL APPROVED
MEMBER IN NCHEMS
ESOTERIC STUDY ON LIME AND CEMENT
IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENT FOR
DOCTORATE IN MANAGEMENT STUDIES
UNDER
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
BY
ANANDARAJ KANNAN
?
?
?
Copy right and Moral rights for the thesis are retained by the
author.
A Copy can be downloaded for personal non – commercial
research or study.
This Thesis cannot be reproduced extensively without
obtaining permission from the Author.
ANANDARAJ KANNAN
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Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
?
The Content should not be changed in any way or sold
commercially in any format or medium without permission
from the Author.
DECLARATION
I, the undersigned, hereby declare that the work is
presented in the thesis entitled “ESOTERIC STUDY
ON LIME AND CEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY “in fulfillment of requirement for the
award of Doctorate in Management Science in the
Department of Construction Management.
To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied
in the thesis has not been submitted to any other
university / Institute for the award of any other
degree or diploma.
ANANDARAJ KANNAN
Page 2
Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
(ANANDARAJ KANNAN)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and Foremost, I take this opportunity to
cordially thank my teachers Mrs. Indira
Gandhi, Mrs. Rajasumathi, Mrs. Ajantha Bose
and Mr. Rajan who motivated me and guided
in correct path throughout this full thesis
from start to scratch.
I express my deep sense of Appreciation and
Gratitude to my wife Mrs. Padma Anandaraj
for providing encouragement to me and
excellent co-operation in preparing this
thesis, I cannot dream about this thesis
without her strong support.
I’m more indebted to my beloved mother
Mrs. Radha Kannan on this regards because
without her prayer I’m sure that I could not
have been completed.
Special thanks to my father Mr. Kannan
Ramasamy for his blessings, valuable
support, and unfailing inspiration throughout
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Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
the work. Without his encouragement I could
not have even planned to initiate this
research.
I am thankful for the co-operation extended
to me by my sister Ms. Ashwini Kannan for all
the system related work of this full thesis.
I would like to extend my thanks to my
brother Mr. Mohan Regional Head, Aster
Infratek Pvt.Ltd Chennai who has given full
freedom to utilize my time in this research
during my working hours and I’m proud that
my professional working experience
Originated under his guidance.
I am thank full to Mr. R Gomathi Shankar
General Manager, Aster infratek Pvt. Ltd
Chennai for keeping trust in me and my work
and he was the first person who identified my
potential.
Last but certainly I would like to express my
gratitude to my sweet little son A P Sharath
Saai for not only showing a great
understanding but managed his all
educational affairs without disturbing me .
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If this Pursuit of mine proves worthwhile,
then ultimately that credits goes to “GOD“.
This work is not possible to present as it has
been done.
PREFACE
Before we go into the subject I would like to
say that this thesis was written to fulfill “
Doctorate of Management Science under
Construction Management “, I was engaged
in this thesis research and writing from
February 2016 to June 2016.
The aim of compiling this report has been to
give a working knowledge about lime and
cement, its usage, their characteristics, the
process of manufacture, their defects,
structure and uses in the industry, and
several other major topics to all in a
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Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
systematic way. The book is written in a clear
and easy-to-read style, presenting
fundamentals at a level that can be quickly
grasped by a beginner.
Lime has been used as a binder for stones
and brick, and as a plaster or render, for
thousands of years. The knowledge of its
properties and how to use it has only been
lost to current practice, other European
countries still use lime extensively within
construction. Almost all buildings
constructed before 1900 will have been built
using lime, which is still the vast majority of
our housing stock, and yet there is now a
huge ignorance about lime and its properties.
University degree courses do not teach the
use of lime, and new graduates are unaware
of the properties, uses and benefits of the
material. This leads to major problems in
construction, as architects and managers
specify the use of cement, a modern material
whose properties and failings over the long
term are only just being recognized.
Problems of damp and durability associated
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with the use of cement may not become
apparent for 50 years or more from the time
of build. English Heritage and Historic
Scotland have banned the use of cement on
all historic buildings because it encourages
damp and can actually destroy buildings that
have stood for hundreds of years.
Cement companies are claiming that cement
has been around for hundreds of years,
implying that Portland cement has been used
throughout this time - this is simply not true.
Cement is a word we use to mean a binder
for aggregate, and in this sense can be clay,
lime, or Portland cement. Clay has been used
for thousands of years, lime has been used
for nearly as long, and hydraulic lime, which
is often called Roman cement, has also been
around since at least the time of the Romans.
The properties of lime are significantly
different from those of modern cement,
which we know as Portland cement. All
buildings constructed before the 20th
century will almost certainly have been built
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using lime, because cement was only
invented in 1824, by Joseph Aspdin, and did
not begin to be used extensively for another
100 years.
In this Thesis we will see an intense study of
physical , chemical properties of lime and
cement with one of its rare kind of
application with comparison of test results.
TABLE OF CONTENT
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Preliminaries
Title……………………………………………………………
……………………………1
Declaration……………………………………………………
…………………………2
Acknowledgement…………………………………………
………………………..3
Preface…………………………………………………………
………………………….5
Table of
Contents………………………………………………………
…………….8
Chapter 1: Cement
1.1. Introduction………………………………………
……………………10
1.2. Physical
Properties………………………………………………
…12
1.3. Chemical
Properties……………………………………………….
16
1.4. Advantages…………………………………………
………………….20
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1.5. Disadvantages……………………………………
…………………..22
1.6. Repair Method for Ferro
cement……………………………22
Chapter 2: Lime
2.1. Introduction………………………………………
……………………27
2.2. Physical
Properties………………………………………………
…29
2.3. Chemical
Properties……………………………………………….
29
2.4. Advantages…………………………………………
………………….32
2.5. Disadvantages……………………………………
…………………..32
2.6. Effect of biomineralization on Porous
Limestone…..33
Chapter 3: Famous Structures made of Lime
& Cement
3.1. Important structures made of
Concrete…………..…35
3.2. Important structures made of Lime
Stone……….…40
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Chapter 4: Strength Comparison of Lime vs.
Cement
4.1. Comprehensive strength of Lime mortar
cubes……..45
4.2. Tensile splitting strength of lime mortar
cubes………46
4.3. Comprehensive strength of O.P.C mortar
cubes…….47
4.4. Tensile splitting strength of O.P.C mortar
cubes…….48
Chapter 5: Result &
Conclusion…………………………….…………….49
Chapter 6:
References…………………………………………………
………50
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Chapter 1: Cement
1.1.
Introduction
Cement is a binder, a substance used in construction that
sets and hardens and can bind other materials together.
The most important types of cement are used as a
component in the production of mortar in masonry, and
of concrete, which is a combination of cement and
an aggregate to form a strong building material.
Cements used in construction can be characterized as
being either hydraulic or non-hydraulic, depending upon
the ability of the cement to set in the presence of water.
Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or
underwater; rather, it sets as it dries and reacts
with carbon dioxide in the air. It can be attacked by some
aggressive chemicals after setting.
Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) set and
become adhesive due to a chemical reaction between the
dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results
in mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so
are quite durable in water and safe from chemical attack.
This allows setting in wet condition or underwater and
further protects the hardened material from chemical
attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement found
by ancient Romans used volcanic ash
(activated aluminum) with lime (calcium oxide).
The word "cement" can be traced back to
the Roman term opus caementicium, used to
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describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was
made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder.
The volcanic ash and pulverized brick supplements that
were added to the burnt lime, to obtain a hydraulic
binder, were later referred to
as cementum, cimentum, cäment, and cement.
Non-hydraulic cement, such as slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide mixed with water), hardens by carbonation in
the presence of carbon dioxide which is naturally present
in the air. First calcium oxide (lime) is produced
from calcium carbonate by calcinations at temperatures
above 825 °C (1,517 °F) for about 10 hours
at atmospheric pressure:
CaCO3 ? CaO + CO2
The calcium oxide is then spent (slaked) mixing it with
water to make slaked lime (calcium hydroxide):
CaO + H2O ? Ca (OH) 2
Once the excess water is completely evaporated (this
process is technically called setting), the carbonation
starts:
Ca (OH) 2 + CO2 ? CaCO3 + H2O
This reaction takes a significant amount of time because
the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the air is low. The
carbonation reaction requires the dry cement to be
exposed to air, and for this reason the slaked lime is nonhydraulic cement and cannot be used under water. This
whole process is called the lime cycle.
Conversely, hydraulic cement hardens by hydration when
water is added. Hydraulic cements (such as Portland
cement) are made of a mixture of silicates and oxides,
the four main components being:
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Belite (2CaO·SiO2);
Alite (3CaO·SiO2);
Tricalcium aluminates (3CaO·Al2O3) (historically, and still
occasionally, called 'celite');
Brownmillerite (4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O3).
The silicates are responsible of the mechanical properties
of the cement, the Tricalcium aluminates and the
Brownmillerite are essential to allow the formation of the
liquid phase during the kiln sintering (firing). The
chemistry of the above listed reactions is not completely
clear and is still the object of research. [4]
1.2.
Physical Properties
1. Fineness
2. Soundness
3. Setting Time
4. Strength
5. Specific Gravity
6. Heat of hydration
7. Loss on Ignition
8. Color
1. Fineness
? The fineness of the cement affects the “RATE OF
HYDRATION” and thus the rate of strength gain.
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? Greater fineness increases the surface available
for hydration, causing greater early strength and
more rapid generation of heat.
? The effects of greater fineness on strength are
generally seen during the first seven days.
? The coarser cement will result in higher ultimate
strength and lower early strength gain of mortar.
? The coarse cement tends to produce pastes with
higher porosity than that produced by finer
cement. An increase of porosity causes lower
durability of concrete.
? Cement Fineness can be measured by several
methods: a) Turbid meter b) Blain Air
Permeability Apparatus. c) Test Sieves (usually
45, 75, 90, 150 micron
? Effects of Fineness Increases a) Increases Water
Requirement b) Increases Strength c) Slump loss
Increases d) Shrinkage Increases e) Setting Time
decreases f) Heat of Hydration Increases g)
Bleeding Decreases h) Air Content decreases I)
Workability decreases.
2. Soundness
? The destructive expansion is caused by
excessive amount of Free Lime (FCao) or
Magnesium Oxide (Mgo)
? ASTM C 150, Standard Specification for Portland
cement specifies a maximum autoclave
expansion of 0.80 percent for all Types of
Portland Cement.
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? There is no Specification limit for free lime for
Portland cement but Lechatlier expansion is
restricted to 10 mm maximum.
? Autoclave expansion is due to the presence of
high Magnesium Oxide and high free lime.
? Lechatlier expansion is due to the presence of
high free lime.
3. Setting Time
? Initial Set - Occurs when the paste begins to
stiffen considerably.
? Final Set - Occurs when the Cement has
hardened to the point at which it can sustain
some load.
? Cement paste setting time is affected by a
number of factors including: a) Cement fineness
Setting Time decreases when cement fineness
increases. b) Water-Cement ratio Setting Time
increases when Water-Cement ratio increases.
? Gypsum Content Setting Time increases when
Gypsum content increases.
? Admixtures setting time depends on the nature
of admixtures as some admixtures are setting
time retarders and some are setting time
enhancers.
? Setting time can give some indication of
whether or not cement is undergoing normal
hydration. Hydration – The reaction between
cement and water is known as hydration (setting
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and hardening). It is an exothermic reaction.
Exothermic Reaction – A reaction in which heat is
released is called Exothermic Reaction. There is
a drop in early strength when the setting time is
low.
4. Strength
? The most common strength test, Compressive
Strength, is carried out on a 50 mm cement
mortar or 150 mm cement concrete test
specimen. The test specimen is subjected to a
compressive load (usually from a hydraulic
machine) until failure.
? The strength can be affected by a number of
factors including: a) Water - Cement ratio b)
Cement – Fine aggregate ratio c) Type and
Grading of Aggregate d) Manner of Mixing and
Molding Specimens e) Curing Conditions f)
Moisture Content at the time of test g) Fineness
of Cement (Cement Mortar Strength is not
related to Concrete Strength. Cement paste
strength is typically used as quality control
measure).
5. Specific Gravity
? Specific Gravity is normally used in mixture
proportioning calculations.
?? ? The specific gravity of Portland cement is
generally around 3.15.
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6. Heat of hydration
? Heat generation when water and Portland
cement react.
? Heat of hydration is influenced by proportion of
C 3 S and C 3 A in the cement, but is also
influenced by water-cement ratio, fineness and
curing temperature. As each one of these factors
is increased, heat of hydration increases.
? Higher heat of hydration causes a considerable
loss in strength and regression at later ages.
7. Loss on Ignition
? The Weight loss of the sample (due to heating)
at 900 – 1000 c is called Loss on Ignition.
? A high LOI can indicate prehydration and
carbonation, which may be caused by improper
and prolonged storage or adulteration during
transportation.
? Higher LOI causes a considerable loss in strength.
8. Colour
? The normal colour of Portland Cement is grayish
green and affecting factors on change of
cement’s colour are A) In case that clinker is
burned in reducing condition or is quenched very
quickly, clinker colour turns to yellow and brown.
B) Also lightness and darkness of colour is rather
different depending on fineness of Cement.
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? Cement colour is very important visual quality
parameter to the customer. Every customer
prefers cement having darker colour.
? Colour of cement is not directly related to the
properties of cement, such as cement strength.
? In order to maintain the desired colour of cement
the percentage of Ferric & Magnesium oxides in
cement must be maintained properly.
1.3.
Chemical Properties
01. Tricalcium Silicate
02. Dicalcium Silicate
03. Tricalcium Aluminate
04. Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite
05. Gypsum
06. Free Lime
07. Chlorides
08. Alkalies
09. Insoluble Residue
01. Tricalcium Silicate
? Tricalcium Silicate hydrates and hardens rapidly
and is largely responsible for initial set and early
strength.
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? Portland Cements with higher percentages of
Tricalcium Silicate will exhibit higher early
strength
02. Dicalcium Silicate
? Heat of Hydration increases with Dicalcium
silicate
? When Tricalcium Silicate increases, reduces the
Dicalcium Silicate
? Setting time decrease
? Strength increases
03. Tricalcium Aluminate
? Tri Calcium Aluminate hydrates and hardens the
quickest. Liberates a large amount of heat
almost immediately and contributes somewhat
to early strength.
? Gypsum is added to Portland cement to retard
Tricalcium Aluminate hydration.
? In absence of Gypsum, Tri Calcium Aluminate
hydration would cause Portland cement to set
almost immediately after adding water.
? Bleeding decreases.
? Chloride Permeability decreases.
? Heat of hydration increases.
? Setting time decreases.
? Strength increases
? Sulfate Resistivity decreases.
? Water requirement increases.
? Workability decreases.
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04. Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite
? Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite hydrates rapidly but
contributes very little to strength. Its use allows
lower kiln temperature in Portland cement
manufacturing.
? Most Portland cement colour effects are due to
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite.
? The higher the Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite the
darker the colour of Cement.
05. Gypsum
? Gypsum is a setting time retarder and without
addition of gypsum ,cement cannot be produced
as Tricalcium Aluminate hydration would cause
Portland cement to set almost immediately after
adding water.
? To prevent sulfate expansion in cement, Sulfate
(SO 3 ) content in cement is established 3 – 3.5
% 3. The higher the gypsum content in cement
leads to longer the setting time.
? PowerPoint Presentation: 4. Excess of gypsum in
cement leads to the formation of Calcium
Sulfoaluminate, (Ettringite) and the formation of
Ettringite results in a volume increase in the
concrete, resulting expansion and cracks.
06. Free Lime
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? Lime (Calcium Oxide) which is not combined
with other constituents in clinker is known as
free lime.
? Free lime is a harmful component in cement and
the presence of higher free lime causes
expansion in cement and drop of early strength.
? Free lime is normally generated during burning
process.
? Higher Free lime in cement causes change of
cement colour to brown.
? Higher Free lime cements are not good binders.
07. Chlorides
?? ?Higher Chloride content in Cement leads to
corrosion of steel, which has detrimental effect
on tension wires in pre-stressed concrete.
?? ?The origin of Chlorides in Cement is mainly from
Cement raw materials.
08. Alkalies
? Higher Alkalies in Portland cement leads to
internal expansion and cracklings in concrete
structures due to the reaction between alkalies
and reactive silicious aggregates.
? The origin of Alkalies in Portland cement is
mainly from Cement raw materials and Fuel.
? Air Content increases.
? Bleeding decreases.
? Heat of hydration increases.
? Alkali Silica Reaction increases.
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?
?
?
?
?
?
Changes in setting time.
Shrinkages decreases.
Slump loss increases.
Early Strengths up, late strengths down.
Water requirement increases.
Workability decreases
09. Insoluble Residue
? A material which is not soluble in Acid and Alkali
is known as Insoluble Residue.
? Insoluble Residue is a non-cementing material
which is present in Portland cement.
? It affects the properties of cement, especially its
compressive strength. (Drop of early strength).
? The limit of Insoluble Residue given by ASTM
Standard is 0.75 percent maximum in cement.
? The contribution of Insoluble Residue in cement
is mainly from the cement additives such as
Limestone, Fly Ash, Volcanic Ash and Burnt Clay.
1.4.
Advantages
?? ?Cement is very strong.
?? ? It can create large structures quickly.
?? ? It conforms to different shapes (arcs and circles,
etc).
? It has high thermal mass (moderates
temperature).
? Cement is extremely strong, and is capable of
withstanding greater degrees of blunt force
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trauma and weather exposure than wood or
vinyl siding.
? Cement burns at a much higher temperature
than wood or vinyl does, which means that it can
withstand fires much better than traditional
types of siding.
? Besides basic cleaning, which can be done with
a power washer, cement siding usually comes
already painted, which will last upwards of ten
years before needing to be repainted.
? Concrete is economical when ingredients are
readily available.
? Concrete’s long life and relatively low
maintenance requirements increase its economic
benefits.
? It is not as likely to rot, corrode, or decay as
other building materials.
? Concrete has the ability to be molded or cast
into almost any desired shape.
? Building of the molds and casting can occur on
the work-site which reduces cost.
? Concrete is a non-combustible material which
makes it fire-safe and able to withstand high
temperatures.
?? ?It is resistant to wind, water, rodents, and
insects. Hence, concrete is often used for storm
shelters.
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1.5. Disadvantages
? Cement is subjected to cracking.
?? ?It is not ideal for situation when settlement is
expected.
? Concrete has a relatively low tensile strength
(compared to other building materials).
? Low ductility.
? Low strength-to-weight ratio.
1.6.
Repair Method for Ferro cement
Terrestrial
structures
are
susceptible
to
deterioration from pollutants in ground water
and those that precipitate from the air (acid
rain). Marine structures are attacked by sulfates
and chlorides in seawater. Environmental
temperature and humidity variations also affect
ferro cement durability and maintenance
procedures.
Maintenance primarily involves detecting and
filling voids, replacing spalled cover, providing
protective coatings, and cosmetic treatment of
surface blemishes. Not all of the usual methods
to treat conventional concrete surfaces can be
applied to ferro cement. For example, due to the
thin cover in ferro cement, muriatic acid
(hydrochloric acid) should be used with extreme
caution. Phosphoric acid and other nonchloride
cleaners should be the specified alternative.
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Protective coatings must bond well and be alkali
tolerant, thermally compatible, and resistant to
environmental
pollutants
and
ultraviolet
radiation, if exposed. Some useful information
can be derived from literature on bridge deck
repair in the Guide for Repair of Concrete Bridge
Superstructures
by
ACI
Committee
546.
Terrestrial ferro cement structures are seldom
exposed to the severe conditions encountered
by bridge decks, but the recommendations and
procedures reported by Tuthill38 and other
references listed in Reference on restoration of
deteriorated concrete provide a basis for
understanding many repair methods that are
applicable to ferro cement. Available literature
that details the methods for repair of ferro
cement is generally nontechnical and written for
repair of boat hulls. The most complete
repository of information on ferro cement
maintenance is located at the International Ferro
cement Information Center (IFIC), Asian Institute
of Technology, in Bangkok, Thailand. IFIC
publishes the Journal of Ferro cement, which is
devoted to research and applications of ferro
cement.
Many materials have been tested by government
agencies, and over 300 are listed in the
“Patching Materials” section of SPEL, Special
Product
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Blemish and stain removal:
Ferro cement is usually less porous than
conventional concrete, stains do not penetrate
very deeply in the mortar matrix. The thin cover
of mortar over ferro cement reinforcement also
means that greater care must be taken when
preparing the surface. Reference 40 discusses
stain removal for concrete. Bulletins on the
subject41,42 are based on the results of a
cooperative investigation by the U.S. Bureau of
Standards and the National Association of Marble
Dealers. All sources agree that even weak acids,
such as oxalic, carbonic, and acetic, may etch
concrete if they are left for extended lengths of
time and not neutralized or completely flushed
off.
Construction blemishes-Construction blemishes
are often caused by improper selection or use of
materials,
faulty
workmanship,
uneven
evaporation, and uneven curing.
Other causes include:
1. Cement from different mills will cause color
variation, although most of the color in mortar is
due to the sand component. Where appearance
is critical, care should be taken to obtain sand
from a single source and have it thoroughly
washed.
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2. Mottling results from the use of calcium
chloride or high-alkali cement combined with
uneven curing.
3. The use of polyethylene sheet material to
cover surfaces promotes uneven curing.
4. The water-cement ratio affects tone and
surface appearance. Low water-cement ratios
will result in a darker appearance.
5. Hard steel troweling densifies the surface,
causing more rapid drying and also leaving a
darkened surface.
Stain removal-Treatment:
Stains should be done promptly after the
discoloration appears. Thorough flushing and
brushing with a stiff bristle brush and detergent
is the first approach. If this is ineffective, a dilute
(about three percent) solution of phosphoric or
acetic acid can be applied. Another chemical
treatment considered safe and effective is a 20
to 30 solution of di-ammonium citrate, a mild
acid which attacks calcium carbonates and
calcium hydroxide. This treatment makes the
surface more porous and promotes hydration.
When a stain has penetrated too deeply to be
removed by surface chemical application and
scrubbing, a poultice or a bandage may be
needed.
A poultice is intended to dissolve the stain and
absorb it into the poultice. The poultice is made
by mixing one or more chemicals such as a
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solution of phosphoric acid with a fine inert
powder such as talc, whiting, hydrated lime, or
diatomaceous earth to form a paste. The paste is
spread in a thick layer over the stain and
allowed to dry. A bandage may consist of a few
layers of cloth or paper toweling soaked in a
chemical solution. More than one application of a
poultice or bandage may be needed for stubborn
stains. Caution: Most of the chemicals used to
remove stains are toxic and require safeguards
against skin contact and inhalation. Whenever
acids are used, surfaces should first be saturated
with water or the dissolved stain material may
migrate deeper into the concrete and reappear
at a later date as efflorescence.
Efflorescence:
When water-bearing salts migrate to exposed
surfaces of concrete, evaporation will result in
the deposit of salts on the surface. This process
is termed efflorescence. It occurs most readily in
porous concrete so it should not be a problem for
ferro cement made with a water-cement ratio of
not more than 0.4 and is well compacted to be
free of voids. Voids, if present, may fill with
water (in certain applications) and efflorescence
will appear on surfaces around the place where
water gained entrance to the void. Treatment
consists of breaking into the void, as with a
hammer, and replastering, or drilling into the
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void with a masonry bit and injecting a non
shrinking cement grout.
Chapter 2: Lime
2.1
Introduction
Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic material in which
carbonates, oxides and hydroxides predominate. Strictly
speaking, lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide. It is
also the name of the natural mineral (native lime) CaO
which occurs as a product of coal seam fires and in
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altered limestone xenoliths in volcanic eject. The word
"lime" originates with its earliest use as building mortar
and has the sense of "sticking or adhering. These
materials are still used in large quantities as building and
engineering materials (including limestone products,
concrete and mortar) and as chemical feedstock’s, and
sugar refining, among other uses. Lime industries and the
use of many of the resulting products date from
prehistoric periods in both the Old World and the New
World. Lime is used extensively for waste water
treatment with ferrous sulfate.
The rocks and minerals from which these materials are
derived, typically limestone or chalk, are composed
primarily of calcium carbonate. They may be cut, crushed
or pulverized and chemically altered. "Burning"
(calcinations) converts them into the highly caustic
material "quicklime" (calcium oxide, CaO) and, through
subsequent addition of water, into the less caustic (but
still strongly alkaline) "slaked lime" or "hydrated lime"
(calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2), the process of which is
called "slaking of lime".
When the term is encountered in an agricultural context,
it probably refers to agricultural lime. Otherwise it most
commonly means slaked lime, as the more dangerous
form is usually described more specifically as quicklime or
"burnt lime".
Limestone in the lime industry is a general term for rocks
that contain 80% or more of calcium or magnesium
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carbonates, including marble, chalk, oolite, and marl.
Further classification is by composition as high calcium,
argillaceous (clayey), siliceous, conglomerate, magnesia
and other limestone, and dolomite[3] Uncommon sources
of lime are coral, sea shells, calcite, and ankerite.
Limestone is extracted from quarries or mines. Part of the
extracted stone, selected according to its chemical
composition and granulometry, is calcinated at about
1,000 °C (1,830 °F) in different types of lime kilns to
produce quicklime according to the reaction: CaCO3 +
heat ? CaO + CO2.
Before use, quicklime is hydrated, that is combined with
water, called slaking, so hydrated lime is also known as
slaked lime, and is produced according to the reaction:
CaO + H2O ? Ca(OH)2. "Dry slaking" is when quicklime is
slaked with just enough water to hydrate the quicklime,
but remain as a powder and is referred to as hydrated
lime. In "wet slaking", enough water, but not too much, is
added to hydrate the quicklime to a form referred to as
lime putty.
Because lime has an adhesive property with bricks and
stones, it is often used as binding material in masonry
works. It is also used in whitewashing as wall coat to
adhere the whitewash onto the wall.
The process by which lime (calcium carbonate) is
converted to quicklime by heating, then to slaked lime by
hydration, and naturally reverts to calcium carbonate by
carbonation is known as the Lime Cycle. The conditions
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and compounds present during each step of the lime
cycle have a strong influence of the end product,[5] thus
the complex and varied physical nature of lime products.
2.2
Physical Properties
2.3
Chemical Properties
Limestone exist on the market, both foreign and
domestic, and these can be drastically different in
density, hardness, porosity, and aesthetics.
ASTM test data is the most common data available to
compare the properties of any stone, including limestone.
Durability
• Interior applications: lifetime
• Exterior applications: lifetime
Source: National Association of Home Builders. 2007.
Study of Life Expectancy of Home Components.
Reuse & Recyclability
• Ensure reclaimed limestone meets ASTM specifications
before using for structural purposes
• Example applications:
Concrete mixture Landscaping Retaining walls Walkways
Fill Re-installation on new buildings Statuary.
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ASTM standards:
ASTM C-568 “Standard
Dimension Stone”
Specification
for
Limestone
•
Includes
material
characteristics,
physical
requirements, and sampling appropriate to the selection
of limestone for general building and structural purposes.
• Classifies dimensional limestone into three categories:
Type I (Low density), Type II (Medium density), and Type III
(High density). The table below lists the required test
values for each type of limestone; the necessary tests are
prescribed by and located in the ASTM standards.
*
TABLE
Caco3
SiO2
Ca(Mg,fe)
(CO3)
Al2O3
Na2O
K2O
Fe2O3
Methylene
F1
99.5
0
0.5
F2
99.5
0
0.5
F3
82
15.5
2.5
F4
94.5
1.8
3.7
F5
86
6.5
7.5
F6
75
2
23
0.15
0.07
0.03
0.15
0.7
0.07
0.03
0.02
0.04
0.7
2.38
0.33
0.61
0.9
4
0.63
0.27
0.11
0.33
1.3
4.45
0.10
1.02
1.71
5
1.38
0.06
0.28
0.82
3.3
Although several physical and chemical properties of
limestone have been shown to affect limestone
neutralization capacity, particle size distribution and
CaCO3 content have been deemed adequate measures to
classify agricultural limestones. When using agricultural
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limestone to neutralize substrate acidity in horticultural
endeavors, problems of inconsistent initial pH in
substrates created using standard formulas for limestone
additions, and pH drift from the initial target in those
substrates, occur. This study was conducted to evaluate
the effects particle size, CaCO3 and MgCO3 content,
internal porosity, hardness, soundness, specific gravity,
and specific surface of limestones from twenty quarries
(selected to maximize differences in properties) on
limestone reactivity in order to determine the degree of
influence of these factors on neutralization capacity of
the limestones. Data for all these physical/chemical
properties were analyzed in multiple regressions with
particle size included and with particle size held constant
at coarse [30–50 mesh (600–300 µm)], medium [170–200
mesh (90–75 µm)], and fine [325–400 mesh (45–38 µm)]
fractions. Particle size accounted for slightly more than
half of the neutralization capacity of the limestones. With
particle size held constant, CaCO3 or MgCO3 had the
greatest impact on limestone reactivity, accounting for
about 50% of the reactivity. Specific surface did not
correlate significantly to particle size, thus addressed an
additional aspect of limestone reactivity. Porosity,
hardness and bulk density were highly correlated to each
other, thus measured the same aspect of limestone
reactivity. Soundness had little influence on reactivity.
Adding specific surface measurements to particle size
and CaCO3 content increased the power of the reactivity
prediction model to 83% of the reactivity. The addition of
a fourth measurement; either porosity, hardness or bulk
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density, increased the model strength to only 88%.
Adding specific surface measurements to the description
of limestone used for horticultural purposes would be
advantageous.
2.4
Advantages
? Concrete is easily formed into shape before it sets. It
is strong when squashed. Glass can be toughed and
used for windows. But Limestone is very valuable
natural resource.
? Quarrying limestone create jobs, which boost the
local economy.
? Cheap and availability is plentiful, most areas of the
country (UK) are within 100 miles of a source, and it’s
not too difficult to transport.
? Getting it out of the ground isn't difficult.
? No special, rare or dangerous chemicals are required
to make it usable product.
? The products it can be made into are very numerous.
? It forms very strong bonds.
2.5
Disadvantages
? Limestone, cement and mortar slowly react acid rain
and wear away, this damages walls made from
limestone and it leaves gaps between bricks.
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? Concrete is weak when bent or stretched. However
concrete can be made stronger by reinforcing it with
steel.
? Some people think concrete building and bridges are
unattractive.
? Glass is brittle and easily shattered.
? Quarrying creates noise and traffic.
? Limestone quarries can be seen from long distances.
? To make CaCO3 usable you have to convert it into
quicklime, or CaO - Calcium Oxide. this requires a lot
of heating, and for eco buffs it releases CO2 - below:
? CaCO3 + shed loads of heat to CaO + CO2
? If you use pure CaCO3 it tends to be dissolved by
acids so your wonderful stature may become a little
crumbly.
2.6 Effect of biomineralization on Porous
Limestone
? There are a handful of research groups in the world
engaged in the development of different applied
biomineralization methods and techniques. The
reason of this is that biomineralization is an
alternative candidate method for stone conservation
purposes as well as for cementation purposes
instead of the conventional, already existing
techniques, materials and methods . In Hungary, the
present research is the first one done in this field,
therefore no literature was available in this topic in
Hungarian language until 2011.
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? Applied biomineralization is based on the natural
phenomenon, that different bacteria strains are
capable of producing calcium carbonate crystals in
adequate environment. Therefore in-situ, controlled
bio-production of calcium carbonate crystals could be
used for the repair and protection of decayed
ornamental and dimension stones. However,
according to the extensive study of the scientific
literature it was clear that large-scale application of
biomineralization in stone conservation and
protection still requires preliminary investigation of
several parameters influencing the effect of
biomineralizing treatments on the stone material.
? Sedimentary rocks deteriorate rapidly under urban
circumstances leading to structural and aesthetic
problems. Total substitution of the deteriorated
stone material offers a very effective, but costly,
time-consuming and often structurally complicated
solution for the aforementioned problems.
Moreover, in some cases the original stone
material is not available anymore. In addition,
extensive quarrying of stone is harmful to the
landscape, too. In order to avoid the total
substitution of the stone material, early protection
or conservation of the original stone material of
the construction is highly desirable. Most inorganic
materials used for the protection and conservation
of porous stone (such as water-repellents,
coatings, stone consolidates) often cause harm to
the stone, being not compatible with the original
material, Moreover, they might have long-term
consequences on future conservation concerns,
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including retreat ability, durability and required
maintenance.
? As result of a biomineralizing treatment calcium
carbonate crystals are produced, therefore this
method is highly compatible with the conservation
and post-consolidation of lime-based or limebound materials (such as porous limestone, limebound sandstones, or lime mortars, as well as
bricks made of sand and lime. Moreover, the
solvent in the bio-based curing compounds is
water, not a volatile organic compound as in case
of the conventional curing compounds. Therefore
bio-based treatments do not contribute to the
green-house effect by emitting VOCs, which
increase the amount greenhouse gases (GHG). In
the future application of materials containing VOCs
will be limited or prohibited, Application of
biomineralization for conservation and restoration
purposes is based on the idea that porous
materials are capable of soak liquidized
biomineralizing compounds, and thus crystalformation can be initiated inside the material.
Chapter 3: Famous Structures Lime & Cement
3.1. Important structures made of cement
concrete….
Concrete has been a major part of construction for
thousands of years. Let’s take a look at some of the most
famous structures, new and old, that were built using
concrete.
1. The Pantheon, Rome.
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Almost two thousand years after this structure was built,
it remains the largest unreinforced concrete dome in the
world and the best preserved of all ancient Roman
buildings. The dome is composed of 4,535 metric tons of
concrete, which makes this ancient building even more
impressive when you think about how many cranes they
had (none!).
2. Burj Khalifa, Dubai.
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Once known as Burj Dubai, this skyscraper holds the title
of tallest manmade structure in the whole world at a
height of nearly 830 meters, or approximately 2725 feet.
The building officially opened in January of 2010 so it
hasn’t been around for that long. The construction of this
building broke all kinds of records, including the record for
the highest vertical concrete pumping for a building at
606 meters or nearly 2000 feet. Very impressive, but how
long is the wait for the elevators?
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2. Hoover Dam, USA.
This iconic American structure is well known for both
fictional and real life reasons. The concrete arch-gravity
dam weighs 6,600,000 tons and was built during the
Great Depression in the Black Canyon of the Colorado
River between Arizona and Nevada. The purpose of
constructing the dam was to create Lake Mead, a water
source for desert inhabitants. Today, most children
probably think there’s a giant evil robot hidden inside,
thanks to the popular movie Transformers.
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3. Panama Canal.
This 82 km (51 miles) man-made canal connects the
Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean between North
America and South America. Without this easy access
route, ships would have to sail all the way around the
continent or find a way to transport their cargo across
land, more than doubling the amount of time spent
sailing. The amount of power required for land transport
is much greater than if the cargo is on a ship. Digging the
51 mile canal was a lot of work, but definitely worth it.
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4. Willis Tower.
Formerly known as the Sears Tower, this structure was
completed in 1973 and held the rank of tallest building in
the world for nearly 25 years. This skyscraper is 442
meters or approximately 1450 feet tall. If you recall from
earlier in this article, that’s about half as big as the
current tallest building in the world, Burj Khalifa.
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3.2. Important structures made of Lime Stone
1. The Great Pyramid of Giza
The Great Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of
Khufu or the Pyramid of Cheops) is the oldest and largest
of the three pyramids in the Giza pyramid complex
bordering what is now El Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest of
the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only
one to remain largely intact.Based on a mark in an
interior chamber naming the work gang and a reference
to fourth dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu, Egyptologists
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believe that the pyramid was built as a tomb over a 10 to
20-year period concluding around 2560 BC.
2. The Pentagon
The Pentagon is the headquarters of the United States
Department of Defense, located in Arlington County,
Virginia, across the Potomac River from Washington, D.C.
As a symbol of the U.S. military, The Pentagon is often
used metonymically to refer to the U.S. Department of
Defense. The Pentagon was designed by American
architect George Bergstrom (1876–1955), and built by
general contractor John McShain of Philadelphia. Ground
was broken for construction on September 11, 1941, and
the building was dedicated on January 15, 1943. General
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Brehon Somervell provided the major motive power
behind the project;[4] Colonel Leslie Groves was
responsible for overseeing the project for the U.S. Army.
3. The Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal represents the finest and most
sophisticated example of Mughal architecture. Its origins
lie in the moving circumstances of its commission and the
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culture and history of an Islamic Mughal empire's rule of
large parts of India. The distraught Mughal Emperor
commissioned the mausoleum upon the death of his
favorite wife Mumtaz Mahal. Today it is one of the most
famous and recognisable buildings in the world and while
the domed marble mausoleum is the most familiar part of
the monument.
4. The Port of Liverpool
The Port of Liverpool Building (formerly Mersey Docks and
Harbour Board Offices, more commonly known as the
Dock Office) is a Grade II* listed building in Liverpool,
England. It is located at the Pier Head and, along with the
neighbouring Royal Liver Building and Cunard Building, is
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one of Liverpool's Three Graces, which line the city's
waterfront.[1] It is also part of Liverpool's UNESCOdesignated World Heritage Maritime Mercantile City.
5. The Charminar
The Charminar, constructed in 1591 CE, is a monument
and mosque located in Hyderabad, Telangana, India. The
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landmark has become a global icon of Hyderabad, listed
among the most recognized structures of India.[1] The
Charminar is situated on the east bank of Musi river.[2] To
the west lies the Laad Bazaar, and to the southwest lies
the richly ornamented granite Makkah Masjid.[3] It is
listed as an archaeological and architectural treasure on
the official "List of Monuments" prepared by the
Archaeological Survey of India under the The Ancient
Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act.
Chapter 4: Comparison of Lime vs. Cement
4.1. Comprehensive strength of Lime mortar cubes
(N/sq.mm)
? Lime Mortar Cubes (1:3 Lime-Sand) – Coarse
Sand
SAMPLE
1
2
3
7 DAYS
1.82
1.93
1.79
14 DAYS
2.78
2.95
2.8
28 DAYS
3.45
3.65
3.5
56 DAYS
4.85
5.1
4.77
? Lime Mortar Cubes (1:3 Lime-Sand) – Fine Sand
SAMPLE
7 DAYS
14 DAYS 28 DAYS 56 DAYS
1
2
3
1.00
1.10
0.96
1.53
1.66
1.43
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2.02
2.15
2.03
2.56
2.98
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Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
4.2. Tensile splitting strength of lime mortar
cubes
? Lime Mortar Cubes (1:3 Lime-Sand) – Coarse
Sand
SAMPLE
1
2
3
7 DAYS
14 DAYS 28 DAYS 56 DAYS
0.16
0.18
0.12
0.25
0.21
0.19
0.28
0.32
0.34
0.45
0.49
0.51
? Lime Mortar Cubes (1:3 Lime-Sand) – Fine Sand
SAMPLE
7 DAYS
14 DAYS 28 DAYS 56 DAYS
1
2
3
0.09
0.11
0.07
0.15
0.12
0.18
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0.20
0.17
0.21
0.25
0.29
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Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
4.3. Comprehensive strength of O.P.C mortar
cubes
? O P C Mortar Cubes (1:3 Cement-Sand) – Coarse
Sand
SAMPLE
1
2
3
7 DAYS
14 DAYS 28 DAYS 56 DAYS
18.90
18.24
18.42
21.70
22.56
23.05
24.33
26.59
25.65
28.74
26.86
28.92
? O P C Mortar Cubes (1:3 Cement-Sand) – Fine
Sand
SAMPLE
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1
2
3
14.80
15.42
15.44
15.20
15.46
16.55
16.23
16.99
16.75
17.34
18.26
18.22
4.4. Tensile splitting strength of O.P.C mortar
cubes
? O P C Mortar Cubes (1:3 Cement-Sand) – Coarse
Sand
SAMPLE
7 DAYS
14 DAYS 28 DAYS 56 DAYS
1
2
3
1.93
2.37
2.49
2.23
2.35
2.12
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2.38
2.58
2.33
3.04
3.26
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Esoteric Study on Lime & Cement
? O P C Mortar Cubes (1:3 Cement-Sand) – Fine
Sand
SAMPLE
7 DAYS
14 DAYS 28 DAYS 56 DAYS
1
2
3
1.38
1.57
1.49
1.74
1.81
1.62
1.99
2.09
1.84
2.34
2.26
2.5
Chapter 5: Conclusion
?? ? ? ? ?The above results suggest that using coarse
sand in lime mortar gives better results
(approximately 50% increase in comprehensive
strength) than using fine sand. This suggests that for
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practical reasons coarse sand should be used to
improve carbonation and eventually compressive and
tensile splitting strength. The coarse sand used in
this study contained a high percentage of 5mm
particles. This size of particles will not cause any
problem in stonework or block work but it will cause
some problems in brickwork. In all cases the 5mm
particles can be changed to 4mm particles for better
workability and ease of construction. Data printed
within this section has been prepared in Regional
Testing Centre Sultanate of Oman.
Notes:
COARSE GRAINED SOIL
Particles having diameter larger than 4.75 mm is
called Gravel and particles having diameter in
between 4.75 mm to 75 micron is called Sand
FINE GRAINED SOIL
Particles having diameter in between 75 micron to 2
micron are called Silt and particles having diameter
smaller than 2 micron is called Clay.
Chapter 6: References
? American Society for Testing and Materials,
West Conshohocken, PA, U.S.A.
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? ASTM C 1489. Standard Specification for Lime
Putty for Structural Purposes
? ASTM, C 206. Standard Specification for
Finishing Hydrated Lime.
? ASTM, C 207. Standard Specification for
Hydrated Lime for Masonry Purposes
? ASTM, C 5. Standard Specification for Quicklime
for Structural Purposes.
? ASTM C270. Standard Specification for Mortars
for Unit Masonry.
? California Historical Building Code, 2001.
California Code of Regulations, Title 24, Part 8.
Alternative Regulations for qualified historical
buildings.
? Cochrane, William G., Sampling Techniques.
New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc,1977.
? Franklin, J. A., Kemeny, J.M. and Girdner, K. K.,
Evolution of measuring systems: A review
Proceedings of the FRAGBLAST 5 Workshop on
Measurement of Blast Fragmentation, Montreal,
Quebec, Canada, 23-24 Aug., 1986, pp. 47-52.
? Vito C.d, Ferrini V., Mignardi S., Piccardi L.,
Rosanna T., Journal of Archaeological Science,
2004, 31(10), 1391-1393.
? Marinoni N., Pavese A., Bugini R., Silvestro G.d,
Journal of Cultural Heritage, 2003, 3(4), 241249.
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