Description
With this particular criteria relating to entrepreneurship education relationship between education and entrepreneurial activity.
Entrepreneurship has emerged over the past three decades,
as arguably the most potent economic force that the world has
ever seen. The focus of economic development, and even of
collegiate business programs, has shifted more heavily toward
entrepreneurship. This increased interest in the entrepreneur’s role
in the economy has led to a growing body of research attempting
to identify the factors that promote entrepreneurship.
The level of entrepreneurship differs considerably across
countries and over the time. Both causes and consequences of
entrepreneurship are a matter of signi?cant and extensive debate
among scientists, policy makers and governments. A high level
of entrepreneurial activity is assumed and shown to contribute to
foster competition, innovation, economic growth, job creation and
well being of the citizens.
According to Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) (2008)
there is wide agreement on the importance of entrepreneurship for
economic development. Entrepreneurs drive innovation: they speed
up structural changes in the economy and force old incumbent
companies to shape up thereby making an indirect contribution to
productivity.
To Verheul, Wennekers, Audretsch and Thurik (2001), a broad
range of determinants explains the level of entrepreneurship,
including economic and social factors. Moreover, it is generally
accepted that policy measures can in?uence the level of
entrepreneurship. The public policy can exert in?uence on
entrepreneurship in different ways: directly through speci?c
measures and indirectly through generic measures. For example,
Psicothema 2011. Vol. 23, nº 3, pp. 453-457 ISSN 0214 - 9915 CODEN PSOTEG
www.psicothema.com Copyright © 2011 Psicothema
Fecha recepción: 20-12-10 • Fecha aceptación: 1-3-11
Correspondencia: Mário Raposo
Unit of Research in Management Science (NECE)
University of Beira Interior
Beira (Portugal)
e-mail: [email protected]
Entrepreneurship education: Relationship between education
and entrepreneurial activity
Mário Raposo and Arminda do Paço
University of Beira Interior
The importance of entrepreneurial activity for the economic growth of countries is now well established.
The relevant literature suggests important links between education, venture creation and entrepreneurial
performance, as well as between entrepreneurial education and entrepreneurial activity. The primary
purpose of this paper is to provide some insights about entrepreneurship education. The meaning of
entrepreneurship education is explained, and the signi?cant increase of these educational programmes
is highlighted. Literature has been suggesting that the most suitable indicator to evaluate the results of
entrepreneurship education is the rate of new business creation. However, some studies indicate that
the results of such programmes are not immediate. Therefore, many researchers try to understand the
precursors of venture creation, concluding that is necessary to carry out longitudinal studies. Based on
an overview of the research published about the existing linkage of entrepreneurship education and
entrepreneurial activity, the main topics studied by different academics are addressed. For the authors,
the positive impact of entrepreneurship education puts a double challenge on governments in the future:
the increased need of ?nancial funds to support entrepreneurship education and the choice of the correct
educational programme.
Educación emprendedora: relación entre educación y actividad emprendedora. La importancia de la
actividad empresarial para el crecimiento económico de los países está bien establecida. La literatura
sugiere importantes relaciones entre educación, creación de negocios y desempeño empresarial, así
como entre educación empresarial y actividad emprendedora. El objetivo de este artículo es proporcionar
algunos esclarecimientos acerca de la educación emprendedora. La literatura sugiere que el indicador
más conveniente para evaluar los resultados de la educación emprendedora es la tasa de creación de
nuevos negocios. Sin embargo, algunos estudios indican que los resultados de tales programas no son
inmediatos. Por tanto, muchos investigadores tratan de comprender los precursores de la creación de
negocios, concluyendo que es necesario llevar a cabo estudios longitudinales. Basado en una perspectiva
general de la investigación publicada acerca de la relación existente entre la educación emprendedora y
la actividad empresarial, se abordan las principales líneas investigadas por diferentes académicos. Para
los autores, el impacto positivo de la educación emprendedora pone un doble desafío a los gobiernos
en el futuro: la creciente necesidad de fondos ?nancieros para apoyar la educación en la creación de
empresas y la elección del programa educativo más adecuado.
MÁRIO RAPOSO AND ARMINDA DO PAÇO 454
when stipulating competition policy, the government can in?uence
the market structure and (indirectly) the number and type of
entrepreneurial opportunities.
Also the government can in?uence the rate of entrepreneurship
not only through legislation, but also through the educational
systems. Education seems important for stimulating
entrepreneurship because several reasons (Reynolds, Hay, & Camp,
1999; Sánchez, 2010a). First, education provides individuals with
a sense of autonomy independence and self-con?dence. Second,
education makes people aware of alternative career choices. Third,
education broader the horizons of individuals, thereby making
people better equipped to perceive opportunities, and ?nally,
education provides knowledge that can be used by individuals to
develop new entrepreneurial opportunities.
Entrepreneurs are not «born» rather they become through the
experience of their lives. Through effective entrepreneurship
education an individual can access the skills and knowledge
needed to start and grow up a new business. Peter Drucker, one of
the leading management thinkers of the last century, questioned:
«Is the entrepreneurial mystique?». His answer is that it is not
magic, it is not mysterious and it has nothing to do with genes. It
is a discipline and, like any discipline it can be learned (Drucker,
1985). According Kuratko and Hodgets (2004), entrepreneurship
is a dynamic process of vision, change and creation. It requires
an application of energy and passion towards the creation and
implementation of new ideas and creative solutions. In this light,
entrepreneurship is more than the simple business’ creation.
To Kuratko (2005), an entrepreneurial perspective can be
developed in individuals. This perspective can be exhibited inside
or outside an organization, in pro?t or non-pro?t organizations, and
in business or non business activities, for the purpose of bringing
forth creative ideas. The entrepreneurship is an integrated concept
that permeates an individual’s business in an innovative manner.
It is this perspective that has revolutionized the way business is
conducted at every level an in every country. The revolution has
begun in an economic sense, and the entrepreneurial perspective is
the dominant force.
According the Small Business Economic Report (2006),
a review of recent research measuring the impact of general
education on entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial performance
suggests three key generalizations. First, the evidence suggesting
a positive link between education and entrepreneurial performance
is robust. Second, although the link between education and
selection into entrepreneurship is somewhat ambiguous, evidence
suggests that when «necessity entrepreneurship» and «opportunity
entrepreneurship» are considered separately, and when country
difference is considerate, the link is less ambiguous. Finally, the
relationship between education and selection into entrepreneurship
is not linear in nature. The highest levels of entrepreneurship are
linked to individual with at least some colleague education.
In spite of the contemporary variation of entrepreneurship
de?nitions there are some similarities. Most part of the research
considers that entrepreneurship «is located» within the entrepreneur,
to a limited number of characteristics or behaviours usual for the
entrepreneurial personality despite its environment (Holmgren,
From, Olofsson, Karlsson, Snyder, & Sundtröm, 2004; Sánchez,
2010b).
This article aims to address some of the issues surrounding
entrepreneurship education. After the initial contextualization,
the authors will try to explain the meaning of entrepreneurship
education. The discussion on this problematic will lead us to
next point of the paper: «Which are the main research lines in the
?eld of entrepreneurship education?» and «What topics should be
explored in the future?».
What is entrepreneurship education?
Hansemark (1998) states that traditional education is marked
as only a transformation of knowledge and abilities, while
entrepreneurship education, in contrast, is held up as the model
for changing attitudes and motives. Entrepreneurship and
entrepreneurship education, beside evident advantages, like
promoting business start-ups, has also a wider market potential
(Holmgren et al., 2004).
Two of the more important prerequisites for success, in
starting a new business, are the desire or the ability to do so.
Entrepreneurial attitudes are not only required in the course of
a classic entrepreneurial career, but they are also clearly in high
demand independent employment relationships (Frank, Korunka,
Lueger, & Mugler, 2005).
Entrepreneurship education seeks to propose people,
especially young people, to be responsible, as well as enterprising
individuals who became entrepreneurs or entrepreneurial thinkers
who contribute to economic development and sustainable
communities.
According to the European Commission communication
«Fostering entrepreneurial mindsets through education and
learning», entrepreneurship education can be de?ned as it follows:
«Entrepreneurship refers to an individual’s ability to turn ideas
into action. It includes creativity, innovation and risk taking, as
well as the ability to plan and manage projects in order to achieve
objectives. This supports everyone in day-to-day life at home and
in society, makes employees more aware of the context of their work
and better able to seize opportunities, and provides a foundation
for entrepreneurs establishing a social or commercial activity»
(Commission of the European Communities, 2006: 4).
The Consortium for Entrepreneurship Education (2008) states
that entrepreneurship education is not just about teaching someone
to run a business. It is also about encouraging creative thinking and
promoting a strong sense of self-worth and empowerment. Through
entrepreneurship education, students learn how to create business,
but they also learn a lot more. The core knowledge created via
entrepreneurship education includes:
– The ability to recognize opportunities in one’s life.
– The ability to pursue opportunities, by generating new ideas
and found the needed recourses.
– The ability to create and operate a new ?rm.
– The ability to think in a creative and critical manner.
So, beside knowledge and skills in business, entrepreneurship
education is mainly about the development of certain beliefs,
values and attitudes, with the aim to get students to really consider
entrepreneurship as an attractive and valid alternative to paid
employment or unemployment (Holmgren et al., 2004; Sánchez,
2010a).
Given the proliferation of entrepreneurship education, it is
necessary to organize this topic framework. Jamieson (1984)
suggested a three-category framework. The author distinguishes
between education about enterprise, education for enterprise and
ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATION AND ENTREPRENEURIAL ACTIVITY 455
education in enterprise, recognising the roles that the different
types of education represent. The ?rst category deals mainly with
awareness creation, and has the aim of educating students on the
issues about setting up and running a business (from a theoretical
perspective). Enterprise modules within business and other courses
at undergraduate or postgraduate level can also be included in this
category.
Education for enterprise, the second category, deals more
with the training of aspiring entrepreneurs for a career in self-
employment with the aim of encouraging participants to set-up
and run their own business. Individuals are taught the practical
skills required for business management. The courses are often
directed towards the preparation of a business plan. Business start-
up and «start your own business» would be examples of this type
of entrepreneurship training.
The third category, education in enterprise, includes
management training for established entrepreneurs and focuses
on ensuring the expansion and development of the business.
Examples of these programmes can be the business management
and growth training, product development and marketing courses.
Such training provides skills, knowledge and attitudes for
entrepreneurs to go out and innovate and solve their own, and the
?rm, problems.
By its turn Garavan and O’Cinnéide (1994) adopted a broader
view to categorizing entrepreneurship education and training,
differentiating between entrepreneurship education and education
and training for small business owners. The ?rst category is
described by them as «entrepreneurial education which is aimed at
providing an opportunity to learn about the conditions favouring
new business creation, as well as the various theories concerning
the type of characteristics required for successful entrepreneurship»
(Henry, Hill, & Leitch, 2005: 5).
However Garavan and O’Cinnéide (1994) were more focused
on education and training for small business owners and have
classi?ed the type of training into three categories, which seems
to be related to the individual’s stage of development: (i) business
awareness education that usually appears in secondary school; (ii)
in ?eld education and training for small business ownership; (iii)
more specialist education conceived to enable people to update
their skills.
According to these authors the most usually referred aims of
entrepreneurship education are the following:
– To get knowledge useful to entrepreneurship.
– To increase capacities in the use of techniques, in the
examination of business situations, and in the creation of
action plans.
– To identify and stimulate entrepreneurial skills.
– To develop empathy and support for all issues of
entrepreneurship.
– To develop attitudes towards change.
– To promote new start-ups and other ventures.
For the purposes of this paper we opt to make a clear
distinction between «enterprise education» and «small business
and entrepreneurship education and training». The most relevant
objectives of enterprise education are to develop enterprising
people and encourage an attitude of autonomy using suitable
learning processes. The entrepreneurship education and training
programmes are aimed directly at stimulating entrepreneurship
(mostly directed to entrepreneurs whose aim is the development of
opportunity-seeking within ?rms).
Most researches about entrepreneurship education are mainly
focuses in the university level (e.g., Raposo, Ferreira, Paço, &
Rodrigues, 2008; Sánchez, 2009) or in the secondary school (e.g.,
Paço, Ferreira, Rodrigues, & Dinis, 2008; Rodrigues, Dinis, Paço,
& Ferreira, 2008). However several authors recommend that this
educational process begins earlier. For example Landström and
Sexton (2000) refer that children are seen as entrepreneurial by
birth. Therefore entrepreneurship education should begin at the
youngest age possible.
It is imperative to have in mind that entrepreneurship and
entrepreneurship education, from an early age in one’s life,
does not only concern business, start-ups and new ventures.
Entrepreneurship has mostly to do with the ability that an individual
has to turn his/her inspirations into actions.
With more education and encouragement, youth should be
able to realize their entrepreneurial aspirations. This outcome
will increase economic growth in communities and open new job
and career opportunities, regardless of economic circumstances.
Although not all youth will become entrepreneurs, all students
and society bene?t when individuals have a solid education, that
gives them entrepreneurial knowledge and skills to use over their
lifetime.
Some research perspectives on entrepreneurship education
A considerable number of varieties of topics approaches
and directions are re?ected in the papers published around the
thematic of entrepreneurship education, both conceptual and
empirical. An interesting survey of entrepreneurship education
research published between 1985 and 1994, based in leading
academic journals, was conducted by Gormon, Hanlon and King
(1997). They suggested that the central theme in the research they
reviewed was the extent to which formal education can contribute
to entrepreneurship. They argued that the existing empirical
research published, during the time period of their review seems
to suggest a consensus among researchers that entrepreneurship
can be taught and that entrepreneurial attributes can be positively
in?uenced by educational programmes.
An overview of research published between 1995 and 2005
about the existing research linking various forms of entrepreneurial
education to entrepreneurial activity, speci?cally, empirical
studies linking education both to the act of venture creation and
to those antecedents that have been proposed as directly linked to
entrepreneurial activity, was presented in the report published in
2006 «The Small Business Economy - a Report to the President of
USA». The articles were drawn from a wide range of peer-reviewed
journals and also from the proceedings of three entrepreneurship
focused Organizations of United States: USASBE (United States
Associations for Small Business and Entrepreneurship), ICSB
(International Council for Small Business and Entrepreneurship)
and The Babson-Kauffman Entrepreneurship Conference.
Based in this report, the table 1 shows the main topics studied
and supported by the contributions of different authors.
Research implications
Based in the state of entrepreneurship education research, it is
possible to say that there are indications of a possible link between
MÁRIO RAPOSO AND ARMINDA DO PAÇO 456
entrepreneurial education and subsequent entrepreneurial activity.
The evidence also suggests that there might be a long period of
time between the education experience and subsequent action.
The results reported by European Commission (2008) point
that entrepreneurship education is ?rst and foremost provided in
business-related courses. However the methods and curriculum do
not always seem to be the most ef?cient and communicable for
the students.
In this sense the EU Member States have recognized the need of
entrepreneurship education to be integrated in the of?cial educational
curricula. Nevertheless, changes still need to be carried out to make
possible this implementation. The total number of countries of the
EU that have integrated entrepreneurship into their curricula is very
low. So it is necessary to promote the inclusion of entrepreneurship
as a key competence in the all members’ national programme. For
this reason, additional research should be conducted to de?ne
the necessary knowledge, skills and competences, in the ?eld of
entrepreneurship, that are necessary for individuals to enter the
labour market and to become entrepreneurs. This extensive study
could contribute to the design of better educational programmes.
At the same time, a better knowing of the entrepreneurial skills
and competences, and its dissemination, could «convince» more
countries to adopt such programmes in the of?cial school.
There are also two fundamental issues that should be analyzed
in an interdependent way: the role of educators and teachers and the
role of the nuclear family. They are really fundamental to in?uence a
child to become an entrepreneur? How they can motivate the young
people to be more autonomous and entrepreneur? Entrepreneurship
education demands a certain amount of time. Single courses and
learning experiences are not enough, and should be integrated in
all regular teaching activities and at all levels of the educational
system. In this sense teachers and parents have a fundamental
function in the promotion and ?ourish of entrepreneurship. These
aspects should be more carefully explored.
The lack of knowledge about effective teaching techniques for
entrepreneurial educators is underlined as a problem, caused by
that research on how to teach entrepreneurship is underdeveloped
(Holmgren et al., 2004).
It seems that throughout the time the research is been putting
too much an emphasis on knowledge and not enough emphasis
on competence, or even too much attention on information
transfer learning methods and not enough attention on individual
small group learning methods (ex. project teams, peer exchange,
individual counselling). There is very little evaluation of the
effectiveness of education entrepreneurship programmes. There
is a lack of evidence on how learning strategies in?uence the
development of entrepreneurial competence and how these
competences transfer into new venture. Thus, these topics should
be also explored in future.
Conclusions
The primary purpose of this conceptual article was to
provide a review of relevant literature about the links between
entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial activity.
The educational system in?uences the knowledge base, the
achievement of skills, competences and attitudes on which future
career choices are based. Since these decisions are essential to the
future of the individual, school has the responsibility to inform
and expose students to a wide range of career options, including
entrepreneurship.
The literature review done had provided some indications about
a positive link between entrepreneurial education and subsequent
entrepreneurial activity. This evidence provides reasons to support
opportunities for people of all ages to take part in education efforts.
Additionally, the education and training should centre itself much
more in changing personal attitudes than in knowledge, because the
effects could be more signi?cant to the process of business creation
and to overcome the perceived barriers to entrepreneurship. The
educational systems need to be oriented to emphasize and value
entrepreneurship in order to promote an enterprise culture.
In future the methodologies associated with the entrepreneurship
education could be an interesting topic to be studied. It is important
to understand what is being done in several pilot schools in order to
analyze the best practices. The correct teaching methodology and
the right learning process will certainly be crucial to the success of
the entrepreneurship education programme.
The growing interest in entrepreneurship education and
the research regarding the impact of such education present
some important policy question both for the institutions that
deliver entrepreneurship education programmes and for support
organizations that provide funding.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Portuguese Foundation for
Science and Technology (FCT) funds.
This article is part of a special section of Psicothema ?nanced
by project nº SA042A08 from Education Council of Junta de
Castilla y León.
Table 1
Linking education with entrepreneurial activity: main research lines
Research areas Authors
1. Entrepreneurial Education and
Venture Creation
Charney & Libecap (2000)
Dumas (2001)
Kolvereid & Moen (1997)
McLarty (2005)
Monroe, Allen & Price (1995)
Osborne, Falcone & Nagendra (2000)
Van der Sluis, Van Praag & Vijverberg (2005)
2. Entrepreneurial Education and
Entrepreneurial Intentions
Autio et al. (1997)
Galloway & Brown (2002)
Klapper (2004)
Noel (2000)
Peterman & Kennedy (2003)
3. Entrepreneurial Education and
Opportunity Recognition
Brännback et al. (2005)
DeTienne & Chandler (2004)
Dimov (2003)
4. Entrepreneurial Education,
Entrepreneurial Self Ef?cacy, and
Entrepreneurial Orientation
Alvarez & Jung (2003)
Ehrlich et al. (2000)
Frank et al. (2005)
Galloway et al. (2005)
5. Entrepreneurial Education and Need
for Achievement and Locus of Control
Hansemark (1998)
6. Entrepreneurial Education and Other
Entrepreneurial Knowledge
Kourilsky & Esfandiari (1997)
Source: The Small Business Economy Report (2006)
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With this particular criteria relating to entrepreneurship education relationship between education and entrepreneurial activity.
Entrepreneurship has emerged over the past three decades,
as arguably the most potent economic force that the world has
ever seen. The focus of economic development, and even of
collegiate business programs, has shifted more heavily toward
entrepreneurship. This increased interest in the entrepreneur’s role
in the economy has led to a growing body of research attempting
to identify the factors that promote entrepreneurship.
The level of entrepreneurship differs considerably across
countries and over the time. Both causes and consequences of
entrepreneurship are a matter of signi?cant and extensive debate
among scientists, policy makers and governments. A high level
of entrepreneurial activity is assumed and shown to contribute to
foster competition, innovation, economic growth, job creation and
well being of the citizens.
According to Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) (2008)
there is wide agreement on the importance of entrepreneurship for
economic development. Entrepreneurs drive innovation: they speed
up structural changes in the economy and force old incumbent
companies to shape up thereby making an indirect contribution to
productivity.
To Verheul, Wennekers, Audretsch and Thurik (2001), a broad
range of determinants explains the level of entrepreneurship,
including economic and social factors. Moreover, it is generally
accepted that policy measures can in?uence the level of
entrepreneurship. The public policy can exert in?uence on
entrepreneurship in different ways: directly through speci?c
measures and indirectly through generic measures. For example,
Psicothema 2011. Vol. 23, nº 3, pp. 453-457 ISSN 0214 - 9915 CODEN PSOTEG
www.psicothema.com Copyright © 2011 Psicothema
Fecha recepción: 20-12-10 • Fecha aceptación: 1-3-11
Correspondencia: Mário Raposo
Unit of Research in Management Science (NECE)
University of Beira Interior
Beira (Portugal)
e-mail: [email protected]
Entrepreneurship education: Relationship between education
and entrepreneurial activity
Mário Raposo and Arminda do Paço
University of Beira Interior
The importance of entrepreneurial activity for the economic growth of countries is now well established.
The relevant literature suggests important links between education, venture creation and entrepreneurial
performance, as well as between entrepreneurial education and entrepreneurial activity. The primary
purpose of this paper is to provide some insights about entrepreneurship education. The meaning of
entrepreneurship education is explained, and the signi?cant increase of these educational programmes
is highlighted. Literature has been suggesting that the most suitable indicator to evaluate the results of
entrepreneurship education is the rate of new business creation. However, some studies indicate that
the results of such programmes are not immediate. Therefore, many researchers try to understand the
precursors of venture creation, concluding that is necessary to carry out longitudinal studies. Based on
an overview of the research published about the existing linkage of entrepreneurship education and
entrepreneurial activity, the main topics studied by different academics are addressed. For the authors,
the positive impact of entrepreneurship education puts a double challenge on governments in the future:
the increased need of ?nancial funds to support entrepreneurship education and the choice of the correct
educational programme.
Educación emprendedora: relación entre educación y actividad emprendedora. La importancia de la
actividad empresarial para el crecimiento económico de los países está bien establecida. La literatura
sugiere importantes relaciones entre educación, creación de negocios y desempeño empresarial, así
como entre educación empresarial y actividad emprendedora. El objetivo de este artículo es proporcionar
algunos esclarecimientos acerca de la educación emprendedora. La literatura sugiere que el indicador
más conveniente para evaluar los resultados de la educación emprendedora es la tasa de creación de
nuevos negocios. Sin embargo, algunos estudios indican que los resultados de tales programas no son
inmediatos. Por tanto, muchos investigadores tratan de comprender los precursores de la creación de
negocios, concluyendo que es necesario llevar a cabo estudios longitudinales. Basado en una perspectiva
general de la investigación publicada acerca de la relación existente entre la educación emprendedora y
la actividad empresarial, se abordan las principales líneas investigadas por diferentes académicos. Para
los autores, el impacto positivo de la educación emprendedora pone un doble desafío a los gobiernos
en el futuro: la creciente necesidad de fondos ?nancieros para apoyar la educación en la creación de
empresas y la elección del programa educativo más adecuado.
MÁRIO RAPOSO AND ARMINDA DO PAÇO 454
when stipulating competition policy, the government can in?uence
the market structure and (indirectly) the number and type of
entrepreneurial opportunities.
Also the government can in?uence the rate of entrepreneurship
not only through legislation, but also through the educational
systems. Education seems important for stimulating
entrepreneurship because several reasons (Reynolds, Hay, & Camp,
1999; Sánchez, 2010a). First, education provides individuals with
a sense of autonomy independence and self-con?dence. Second,
education makes people aware of alternative career choices. Third,
education broader the horizons of individuals, thereby making
people better equipped to perceive opportunities, and ?nally,
education provides knowledge that can be used by individuals to
develop new entrepreneurial opportunities.
Entrepreneurs are not «born» rather they become through the
experience of their lives. Through effective entrepreneurship
education an individual can access the skills and knowledge
needed to start and grow up a new business. Peter Drucker, one of
the leading management thinkers of the last century, questioned:
«Is the entrepreneurial mystique?». His answer is that it is not
magic, it is not mysterious and it has nothing to do with genes. It
is a discipline and, like any discipline it can be learned (Drucker,
1985). According Kuratko and Hodgets (2004), entrepreneurship
is a dynamic process of vision, change and creation. It requires
an application of energy and passion towards the creation and
implementation of new ideas and creative solutions. In this light,
entrepreneurship is more than the simple business’ creation.
To Kuratko (2005), an entrepreneurial perspective can be
developed in individuals. This perspective can be exhibited inside
or outside an organization, in pro?t or non-pro?t organizations, and
in business or non business activities, for the purpose of bringing
forth creative ideas. The entrepreneurship is an integrated concept
that permeates an individual’s business in an innovative manner.
It is this perspective that has revolutionized the way business is
conducted at every level an in every country. The revolution has
begun in an economic sense, and the entrepreneurial perspective is
the dominant force.
According the Small Business Economic Report (2006),
a review of recent research measuring the impact of general
education on entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial performance
suggests three key generalizations. First, the evidence suggesting
a positive link between education and entrepreneurial performance
is robust. Second, although the link between education and
selection into entrepreneurship is somewhat ambiguous, evidence
suggests that when «necessity entrepreneurship» and «opportunity
entrepreneurship» are considered separately, and when country
difference is considerate, the link is less ambiguous. Finally, the
relationship between education and selection into entrepreneurship
is not linear in nature. The highest levels of entrepreneurship are
linked to individual with at least some colleague education.
In spite of the contemporary variation of entrepreneurship
de?nitions there are some similarities. Most part of the research
considers that entrepreneurship «is located» within the entrepreneur,
to a limited number of characteristics or behaviours usual for the
entrepreneurial personality despite its environment (Holmgren,
From, Olofsson, Karlsson, Snyder, & Sundtröm, 2004; Sánchez,
2010b).
This article aims to address some of the issues surrounding
entrepreneurship education. After the initial contextualization,
the authors will try to explain the meaning of entrepreneurship
education. The discussion on this problematic will lead us to
next point of the paper: «Which are the main research lines in the
?eld of entrepreneurship education?» and «What topics should be
explored in the future?».
What is entrepreneurship education?
Hansemark (1998) states that traditional education is marked
as only a transformation of knowledge and abilities, while
entrepreneurship education, in contrast, is held up as the model
for changing attitudes and motives. Entrepreneurship and
entrepreneurship education, beside evident advantages, like
promoting business start-ups, has also a wider market potential
(Holmgren et al., 2004).
Two of the more important prerequisites for success, in
starting a new business, are the desire or the ability to do so.
Entrepreneurial attitudes are not only required in the course of
a classic entrepreneurial career, but they are also clearly in high
demand independent employment relationships (Frank, Korunka,
Lueger, & Mugler, 2005).
Entrepreneurship education seeks to propose people,
especially young people, to be responsible, as well as enterprising
individuals who became entrepreneurs or entrepreneurial thinkers
who contribute to economic development and sustainable
communities.
According to the European Commission communication
«Fostering entrepreneurial mindsets through education and
learning», entrepreneurship education can be de?ned as it follows:
«Entrepreneurship refers to an individual’s ability to turn ideas
into action. It includes creativity, innovation and risk taking, as
well as the ability to plan and manage projects in order to achieve
objectives. This supports everyone in day-to-day life at home and
in society, makes employees more aware of the context of their work
and better able to seize opportunities, and provides a foundation
for entrepreneurs establishing a social or commercial activity»
(Commission of the European Communities, 2006: 4).
The Consortium for Entrepreneurship Education (2008) states
that entrepreneurship education is not just about teaching someone
to run a business. It is also about encouraging creative thinking and
promoting a strong sense of self-worth and empowerment. Through
entrepreneurship education, students learn how to create business,
but they also learn a lot more. The core knowledge created via
entrepreneurship education includes:
– The ability to recognize opportunities in one’s life.
– The ability to pursue opportunities, by generating new ideas
and found the needed recourses.
– The ability to create and operate a new ?rm.
– The ability to think in a creative and critical manner.
So, beside knowledge and skills in business, entrepreneurship
education is mainly about the development of certain beliefs,
values and attitudes, with the aim to get students to really consider
entrepreneurship as an attractive and valid alternative to paid
employment or unemployment (Holmgren et al., 2004; Sánchez,
2010a).
Given the proliferation of entrepreneurship education, it is
necessary to organize this topic framework. Jamieson (1984)
suggested a three-category framework. The author distinguishes
between education about enterprise, education for enterprise and
ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATION AND ENTREPRENEURIAL ACTIVITY 455
education in enterprise, recognising the roles that the different
types of education represent. The ?rst category deals mainly with
awareness creation, and has the aim of educating students on the
issues about setting up and running a business (from a theoretical
perspective). Enterprise modules within business and other courses
at undergraduate or postgraduate level can also be included in this
category.
Education for enterprise, the second category, deals more
with the training of aspiring entrepreneurs for a career in self-
employment with the aim of encouraging participants to set-up
and run their own business. Individuals are taught the practical
skills required for business management. The courses are often
directed towards the preparation of a business plan. Business start-
up and «start your own business» would be examples of this type
of entrepreneurship training.
The third category, education in enterprise, includes
management training for established entrepreneurs and focuses
on ensuring the expansion and development of the business.
Examples of these programmes can be the business management
and growth training, product development and marketing courses.
Such training provides skills, knowledge and attitudes for
entrepreneurs to go out and innovate and solve their own, and the
?rm, problems.
By its turn Garavan and O’Cinnéide (1994) adopted a broader
view to categorizing entrepreneurship education and training,
differentiating between entrepreneurship education and education
and training for small business owners. The ?rst category is
described by them as «entrepreneurial education which is aimed at
providing an opportunity to learn about the conditions favouring
new business creation, as well as the various theories concerning
the type of characteristics required for successful entrepreneurship»
(Henry, Hill, & Leitch, 2005: 5).
However Garavan and O’Cinnéide (1994) were more focused
on education and training for small business owners and have
classi?ed the type of training into three categories, which seems
to be related to the individual’s stage of development: (i) business
awareness education that usually appears in secondary school; (ii)
in ?eld education and training for small business ownership; (iii)
more specialist education conceived to enable people to update
their skills.
According to these authors the most usually referred aims of
entrepreneurship education are the following:
– To get knowledge useful to entrepreneurship.
– To increase capacities in the use of techniques, in the
examination of business situations, and in the creation of
action plans.
– To identify and stimulate entrepreneurial skills.
– To develop empathy and support for all issues of
entrepreneurship.
– To develop attitudes towards change.
– To promote new start-ups and other ventures.
For the purposes of this paper we opt to make a clear
distinction between «enterprise education» and «small business
and entrepreneurship education and training». The most relevant
objectives of enterprise education are to develop enterprising
people and encourage an attitude of autonomy using suitable
learning processes. The entrepreneurship education and training
programmes are aimed directly at stimulating entrepreneurship
(mostly directed to entrepreneurs whose aim is the development of
opportunity-seeking within ?rms).
Most researches about entrepreneurship education are mainly
focuses in the university level (e.g., Raposo, Ferreira, Paço, &
Rodrigues, 2008; Sánchez, 2009) or in the secondary school (e.g.,
Paço, Ferreira, Rodrigues, & Dinis, 2008; Rodrigues, Dinis, Paço,
& Ferreira, 2008). However several authors recommend that this
educational process begins earlier. For example Landström and
Sexton (2000) refer that children are seen as entrepreneurial by
birth. Therefore entrepreneurship education should begin at the
youngest age possible.
It is imperative to have in mind that entrepreneurship and
entrepreneurship education, from an early age in one’s life,
does not only concern business, start-ups and new ventures.
Entrepreneurship has mostly to do with the ability that an individual
has to turn his/her inspirations into actions.
With more education and encouragement, youth should be
able to realize their entrepreneurial aspirations. This outcome
will increase economic growth in communities and open new job
and career opportunities, regardless of economic circumstances.
Although not all youth will become entrepreneurs, all students
and society bene?t when individuals have a solid education, that
gives them entrepreneurial knowledge and skills to use over their
lifetime.
Some research perspectives on entrepreneurship education
A considerable number of varieties of topics approaches
and directions are re?ected in the papers published around the
thematic of entrepreneurship education, both conceptual and
empirical. An interesting survey of entrepreneurship education
research published between 1985 and 1994, based in leading
academic journals, was conducted by Gormon, Hanlon and King
(1997). They suggested that the central theme in the research they
reviewed was the extent to which formal education can contribute
to entrepreneurship. They argued that the existing empirical
research published, during the time period of their review seems
to suggest a consensus among researchers that entrepreneurship
can be taught and that entrepreneurial attributes can be positively
in?uenced by educational programmes.
An overview of research published between 1995 and 2005
about the existing research linking various forms of entrepreneurial
education to entrepreneurial activity, speci?cally, empirical
studies linking education both to the act of venture creation and
to those antecedents that have been proposed as directly linked to
entrepreneurial activity, was presented in the report published in
2006 «The Small Business Economy - a Report to the President of
USA». The articles were drawn from a wide range of peer-reviewed
journals and also from the proceedings of three entrepreneurship
focused Organizations of United States: USASBE (United States
Associations for Small Business and Entrepreneurship), ICSB
(International Council for Small Business and Entrepreneurship)
and The Babson-Kauffman Entrepreneurship Conference.
Based in this report, the table 1 shows the main topics studied
and supported by the contributions of different authors.
Research implications
Based in the state of entrepreneurship education research, it is
possible to say that there are indications of a possible link between
MÁRIO RAPOSO AND ARMINDA DO PAÇO 456
entrepreneurial education and subsequent entrepreneurial activity.
The evidence also suggests that there might be a long period of
time between the education experience and subsequent action.
The results reported by European Commission (2008) point
that entrepreneurship education is ?rst and foremost provided in
business-related courses. However the methods and curriculum do
not always seem to be the most ef?cient and communicable for
the students.
In this sense the EU Member States have recognized the need of
entrepreneurship education to be integrated in the of?cial educational
curricula. Nevertheless, changes still need to be carried out to make
possible this implementation. The total number of countries of the
EU that have integrated entrepreneurship into their curricula is very
low. So it is necessary to promote the inclusion of entrepreneurship
as a key competence in the all members’ national programme. For
this reason, additional research should be conducted to de?ne
the necessary knowledge, skills and competences, in the ?eld of
entrepreneurship, that are necessary for individuals to enter the
labour market and to become entrepreneurs. This extensive study
could contribute to the design of better educational programmes.
At the same time, a better knowing of the entrepreneurial skills
and competences, and its dissemination, could «convince» more
countries to adopt such programmes in the of?cial school.
There are also two fundamental issues that should be analyzed
in an interdependent way: the role of educators and teachers and the
role of the nuclear family. They are really fundamental to in?uence a
child to become an entrepreneur? How they can motivate the young
people to be more autonomous and entrepreneur? Entrepreneurship
education demands a certain amount of time. Single courses and
learning experiences are not enough, and should be integrated in
all regular teaching activities and at all levels of the educational
system. In this sense teachers and parents have a fundamental
function in the promotion and ?ourish of entrepreneurship. These
aspects should be more carefully explored.
The lack of knowledge about effective teaching techniques for
entrepreneurial educators is underlined as a problem, caused by
that research on how to teach entrepreneurship is underdeveloped
(Holmgren et al., 2004).
It seems that throughout the time the research is been putting
too much an emphasis on knowledge and not enough emphasis
on competence, or even too much attention on information
transfer learning methods and not enough attention on individual
small group learning methods (ex. project teams, peer exchange,
individual counselling). There is very little evaluation of the
effectiveness of education entrepreneurship programmes. There
is a lack of evidence on how learning strategies in?uence the
development of entrepreneurial competence and how these
competences transfer into new venture. Thus, these topics should
be also explored in future.
Conclusions
The primary purpose of this conceptual article was to
provide a review of relevant literature about the links between
entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial activity.
The educational system in?uences the knowledge base, the
achievement of skills, competences and attitudes on which future
career choices are based. Since these decisions are essential to the
future of the individual, school has the responsibility to inform
and expose students to a wide range of career options, including
entrepreneurship.
The literature review done had provided some indications about
a positive link between entrepreneurial education and subsequent
entrepreneurial activity. This evidence provides reasons to support
opportunities for people of all ages to take part in education efforts.
Additionally, the education and training should centre itself much
more in changing personal attitudes than in knowledge, because the
effects could be more signi?cant to the process of business creation
and to overcome the perceived barriers to entrepreneurship. The
educational systems need to be oriented to emphasize and value
entrepreneurship in order to promote an enterprise culture.
In future the methodologies associated with the entrepreneurship
education could be an interesting topic to be studied. It is important
to understand what is being done in several pilot schools in order to
analyze the best practices. The correct teaching methodology and
the right learning process will certainly be crucial to the success of
the entrepreneurship education programme.
The growing interest in entrepreneurship education and
the research regarding the impact of such education present
some important policy question both for the institutions that
deliver entrepreneurship education programmes and for support
organizations that provide funding.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Portuguese Foundation for
Science and Technology (FCT) funds.
This article is part of a special section of Psicothema ?nanced
by project nº SA042A08 from Education Council of Junta de
Castilla y León.
Table 1
Linking education with entrepreneurial activity: main research lines
Research areas Authors
1. Entrepreneurial Education and
Venture Creation
Charney & Libecap (2000)
Dumas (2001)
Kolvereid & Moen (1997)
McLarty (2005)
Monroe, Allen & Price (1995)
Osborne, Falcone & Nagendra (2000)
Van der Sluis, Van Praag & Vijverberg (2005)
2. Entrepreneurial Education and
Entrepreneurial Intentions
Autio et al. (1997)
Galloway & Brown (2002)
Klapper (2004)
Noel (2000)
Peterman & Kennedy (2003)
3. Entrepreneurial Education and
Opportunity Recognition
Brännback et al. (2005)
DeTienne & Chandler (2004)
Dimov (2003)
4. Entrepreneurial Education,
Entrepreneurial Self Ef?cacy, and
Entrepreneurial Orientation
Alvarez & Jung (2003)
Ehrlich et al. (2000)
Frank et al. (2005)
Galloway et al. (2005)
5. Entrepreneurial Education and Need
for Achievement and Locus of Control
Hansemark (1998)
6. Entrepreneurial Education and Other
Entrepreneurial Knowledge
Kourilsky & Esfandiari (1997)
Source: The Small Business Economy Report (2006)
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