Doing good at a nonprofit tourist attraction

Description
The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the growing field of membership research by
applying a relationship marketing perspective on members in tourism settings. Focus is on exploring
why consumers are members (motivational dimensions) and how motivations are related to member
behaviours (retention, participation and co-creation), and to member demographics (gender, age,
distance between the member’s home and the supported organization).

International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Doing good at a nonprofit tourist attraction
Anna Karin Olsson Martin Gellerstedt
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Anna Karin Olsson Martin Gellerstedt , (2014),"Doing good at a nonprofit tourist attraction", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and
Hospitality Research, Vol. 8 Iss 1 pp. 74 - 91
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Antónia Correia, Metin Kozak, J oão Ferradeira, (2013),"From tourist motivations to tourist satisfaction", International J ournal of Culture,
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Lan-Lan Chang, Kenneth F. Backman, Yu Chih Huang, (2014),"Creative tourism: a preliminary examination of creative tourists’ motivation,
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401-419http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJ CTHR-04-2014-0032
J uergen Gnoth, Xavier Matteucci, (2014),"A phenomenological view of the behavioural tourism research literature", International J ournal of
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Doing good at a nonpro?t tourist attraction
Anna Karin Olsson and Martin Gellerstedt
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the growing ?eld of membership research by
applying a relationship marketing perspective on members in tourism settings. Focus is on exploring
why consumers are members (motivational dimensions) and how motivations are related to member
behaviours (retention, participation and co-creation), and to member demographics (gender, age,
distance between the member’s home and the supported organization).
Design/methodology/approach – A survey was conducted among members of a nonpro?t tourist
attraction (n ¼ 755). Classical chi-square tests, t-tests and multivariate analysis using logistic regression
were used to analyze data and to test eight hypotheses on member demographics, member motivations
and member behaviours.
Findings – Findings show that among the three motivational dimensions, altruism, i.e. doing good for
others, was the strongest motive, followed by self-interest, i.e. doing good for yourself, and then the
social motive, i.e. doing good with others, which scored lowest. Furthermore, ?ndings show that gender,
age and distance were signi?cantly related to member motivations and member behaviours. Member
behaviours were signi?cantly related to motivations.
Research limitations/implications – This study was conducted at a single nonpro?t tourist attraction.
However, it provides insights into different motivational dimensions for why people pay to become
members and what kind of member behaviour they demonstrate. This topic calls for further research to
explore the complex membership phenomenon such as extending this study by identifying member
motives and behaviour in other contexts.
Practical implications – This explorative study of members of a nonpro?t tourist attraction contributes
insights into why consumers are members (motivational dimensions), how motivations are related to
member behaviours in a membership relationship context, and how member demographics are related
to motivations and behaviours. Findings have implications for membership managers and the
development of memberships in terms of giving a deeper insight into members as consumers in order to
develop memberships as strategic resources and hence use the full potential of memberships
especially vital to non-pro?t organizations. Several aspects of memberships are discussed that may
inspire the development of member offerings. The present study contributes to the developing ?eld of
membership research as it is a response to the calls for more empirical studies of members to develop
an integrated understanding of motivations of memberships. Furthermore it contributes with research of
co-creation in customer relationships linking the co-creation concept to research of members in tourism
settings.
Originality/value – This study contributes to the developing ?eld of membership research and
furthermore gives insights into consumer motivations and behaviours that may inspire development of
innovative and competitive membership offerings building membership relationships in tourismsettings.
Keywords Participation, Motivations, Relationship marketing, Co-creation, Behaviours, Membership
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Today members and memberships are found in almost all walks of life, including customer
clubs, loyalty schemes or reward programs, sports clubs, fan clubs, and friendship
schemes (Hill and Whitehead, 2004; Iliffe, 2004). Memberships are founded on the idea of
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VOL. 8 NO. 1 2014, pp. 74-91, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/IJCTHR-07-2012-0051
Anna Karin Olsson and
Martin Gellerstedt are both
based at the School of
Business, Economics and
IT, University West,
Trollha¨ ttan, Sweden.
Received 15 June 2012
Revised 9 September 2013
Accepted 16 September 2013
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mutual bene?ts in a relationship where individuals make a conscious decision to join and are
offered tangible and/or intangible bene?ts (Gruen, 2000). Many memberships have
developed from simply being loyalty or reward programs, based on accumulation of
frequency points, into a means to create emotional bonds based on calculative and affective
commitment (Mattila, 2006), often encouraging active member participation. Memberships
are viewed as competitive marketing tools with the potential organisational bene?ts of
funding, fee revenue, gaining of market share, enhancing loyalty and building relationships,
and direct member support such as advocates and volunteers (see Bhattacharya et al.,
1995; Feng and Morrison, 2007; Gruen and Ferguson, 1994; Iliffe, 2004). Hence, the use of
memberships is an international phenomenon found in both the pro?t and nonpro?t sectors
(Slater, 2005). The membership phenomenon is complex and multi-faceted and offers many
research opportunities for scholars of various disciplines. This paper explores members’
motivations and behaviours at a nonpro?t tourist attraction by applying the relationship
between a member and a supported organisation as a point of departure.
In nonpro?t sectors members offer their ?nancial support and furthermore often their
knowledge, experience, enthusiasm, and work for free. Membership relationships at nonpro?t
organisations (NPOs) are often based on members’ individual interests such as concerns,
commitments, and compassion for other people, a speci?c cause, caring for their community,
the environment, future generations and preservation of traditions, theatre, arts, and heritage
sites, which are often linked to healthcare, community building, and regional development
(see Anheier, 2005). Various kinds of membership programs have been practised in tourism
since the 1970s (Gilbert, 1996). Existing research shows that the use of memberships in
tourism is increasing (Deery et al., 1997; Jago and Deery, 2002), and so is the number of
members performing volunteer work at events, attractions, and destinations (Deery et al.,
1997; Gallarza et al., 2009; Holmes and Smith, 2009; Jago and Deery, 2002; Olsson et al.,
2013). Many events and tourist attractions such as museums, galleries, parks, and heritage
sites are run by NPOs and rely on member support (Andersson and Getz, 2009; Holmes,
2003; Orr, 2006). Many organisations struggle to survive (Andreasen and Kotler, 2008; Randle
and Dolnicar, 2009) and marketing activities aimed at recruiting and retaining members
(Bussell and Forbes, 2002) are crucial. Hence it is of importance to put research focus on the
motivations for joining and staying on as a member as well as to explore what members do in
tourism settings (Olsson, 2012). Earlier studies in tourism settings point out the importance of
volunteers as ?nancial and social resources since volunteers often have an impact on visitors’
experiences (see Bussell and Forbes, 2002; Jago and Deery, 2002; Holmes and Smith, 2009).
Most research in nonpro?t organisations emphasises how to improve monetary contributions
from individual donors, with less focus on how to increase other kinds of support and
participation by members (Briggs et al., 2007).
The aim of this study is therefore to provide insights into motivations and behaviours of
members at a nonpro?t tourist attraction. Many activities and organisations compete for
consumers’ attention, leisure time, and ?nancial support. In a competitive environment with
rapidly shifting consumer behaviour patterns it is thus of interest to identify the underlying
motives that inspire consumers to join an organisation as members (/re-/purchase of
membership) and furthermore to experience their memberships in various ways (e.g. visit or
perform volunteer work and other supportive behaviours). In this study we apply a
relationship marketing perspective and membership is here de?ned as a formal relationship
where the individual has made an active decision to join, paid a fee, and is listed by the
supported organisation (Gruen, 2000). Members are furthermore viewed as consumers as
suggested by Holmes (2003) who points out that members in general are treated as a
neglected audience, though member behaviours such as volunteering can be viewed as an
extension of visiting (Holmes, 2003; Holmes and Edwards, 2008). Members use their
memberships in various ways and may also take on various roles such as producers when
acting as volunteers (Holmes, 2003; Holmes and Edwards, 2008). The terms members and
friends are often used interchangeably to refer to supporters, fundraisers, advocates, and
volunteers linked to an organisation (Slater, 2005). According to a study by Raymond (1992),
the termsupporter was strongly related to football clubs and the Burns Sadek study (1992) in
Slater (2003a) furthermore emphasised that the term members indicated participation and
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was preferred to friends, which was regarded as old-fashioned and unprofessional.
References to members in this paper will henceforth include friends and volunteers of
nonpro?t organisations.
Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to contribute to the growing ?eld of membership
research by applying a relationship marketing perspective to members in tourism settings.
To shed light on why consumers are members (motivational dimensions such as altruism,
self-interest, and social dimensions), how motivations are related to member behaviours
(retention, participation, and co-creation), and how member demographics (gender and
age) are related to motivations and behaviours, seven hypotheses are tested. The empirical
setting consists of members at a major Swedish nonpro?t tourist attraction, a zoo, dedicated
to saving and preserving endangered animals.
Membership research – motivations, behaviours, and demographics
Previous research on membership is found across international journals of sociology,
museology, business, and tourism. Despite the widespread use of memberships, marketing
research in memberships is limited (Bhattacharya et al., 1995; Gruen, 2000; Slater, 2004)
and mainly focused on typologies, with less attention to empirical studies (Bhattacharya,
1998). Earlier marketing research on membership has mainly focused on services marketing
(e.g. Lovelock, 1983; Ferguson and Brown, 1991; Berry, 1995), and frequent customers
(e.g. Butscher, 2002; Whyte, 2004). Contemporary marketing however emphasises
relationships, interactions, and co-creation of value (e.g. Gro¨ nroos, 2008; Prahalad and
Ramaswamy, 2004; Randall et al., 2011; Vargo and Lusch, 2004, 2008) as will be further
elaborated in a membership context.
Memberships are based on mutual bene?ts of a relationship and are hence closely related to
relationship marketing. Gummesson (2006) points out the major variables of contemporary
marketing as relationships, networks, and interactions. Relationships link people together, and
if there are several actors involved the relationship turns into a network with complex patterns
of interactions. A broad de?nition of relationship marketing is suggested as ‘‘interaction in
networks of relationships’’ (Gummesson, 2006, p. 60). Active interactions should be in focus in
relationships as should commitment to the brand and emotional involvement, according to
Gilbert (1996 in Feng and Morrison, 2007). What all these relationship marketing concepts and
de?nitions have in common is that they re?ect the importance of offerings and strategies that
emphasise interaction with customers in order to create lasting relationships and establish
customer retention based on commitment and involvement.
Membership motivations
Studies of membership motivations point out tangible and intangible bene?ts that enrich the
members’ experiences, such as free admission, meeting newpeople, identity, or performing
volunteer work for a worthy cause (Bhattacharya et al., 1995; Kotler and Kotler, 1998; Hayes
and Slater, 2003). When an individual joins a membership organisation, this can be viewed
as an active and planned decision and as a ‘‘visible statement that he or she wishes to be in
a relationship with that organisation and the other members of the organisation’’ (Gruen,
2000, p. 356) and a formalized bond is established. Motivation to join as an active member is
often due to the importance of being personally asked and recruited by friends or family
members (Wymer, 1997). To perform volunteer work for a member organisation further
communicates something about the values of the individual member (Wymer and Samu,
2002) and gives opportunities to pass on beliefs and values to other people (Steen, 2006).
Previous research on membership motivations in nonpro?t organisations presented
multifaceted overlapping motivations for members in various settings, e.g. at museums
and galleries (Bhattacharya et al., 1995; Glynn et al., 1996; Paswan and Troy, 2004; Slater,
2003a, b; Wymer and Brudney, 2000), theatres (Bussell and Forbes, 2006), literary heritage
(Smith, 2003), special events (Monga, 2006), sports events (Downward and Ralston, 2005;
Kemp, 2002), and humanitarian organisations (Prouteau and Wolff, 2008). Existing research
showed the importance of altruistic, egoistic, and hedonic motives of membership as well as
motives of identi?cation and social relations (Bhattacharya et al., 1995; Bussell and Forbes,
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2002; Downward and Ralston, 2005; Edwards, 2005; Paswan and Troy, 2004; Prouteau and
Wolff, 2008; Slater, 2003b; Wymer and Brudney, 2000). Hence motivational aspects of
memberships in NPOs need to be further explored (Paswan and Troy, 2004) so that
practitioners and researchers may gain ‘‘an integrated understanding of individuals’
motivations for joining, using and retaining memberships’’ (Slater, 2003b, p. 185).
Paswan and Troy (2004) summed up previous research and proposed broad categories of
different dimensions of member motivations. Altruistic motivations include philanthropy as a
desire to give help and support, and preservation as a desire to save something for the
future. In humanitarian and social organisations altruistic motives are most frequent
(Prouteau and Wolff, 2008). Egoistic motivations based on self-interest were categorised as
traditional tangible member bene?ts such as free entrance, social recognition such as status
and prestige, and bene?ts for children. Hedonic motivations were also linked to self-interest,
expressing a strong passion for something or sheer joy or pleasure.
There are individual multiple bene?ts sought in memberships by different members at
different times (Hill and Whitehead, 2004). Members often express that they do not want
anything in return for their support. However, they do often have expectations, hence
altruistic and egoistic motivations are not mutually exclusive as pointed out by Wymer et al.
(1997). Members expect the nonpro?t organisation (NPO) to use their support ef?ciently and
often also expect some kind of gratitude or recognition (Bussell and Forbes, 2002; Olsson,
2010; Steen, 2006). Members often receive personal and non-monetary returns and express
a need to ‘‘feel useful and productive, as well as the need for gaining prestige and
enhancing self-esteem’’ (Steen, 2006, p. 53). Memberships offer opportunities to meet other
people, and share their interest and enthusiasm for a speci?c cause or interest (Prouteau
and Wolff, 2008; Smith, 2003). Studies by Bussell and Forbes (2002) supported the
importance of intangible bene?ts and proposed that active members satisfy their social and
psychological needs. The importance of friendship and social tiers in membership
relationships was pointed out in several studies (Downward and Ralston, 2005; Kemp, 2002;
Smith, 2003). The social and relational motivations of membership such as meeting and
interacting with other members, paid staff, and visitors were thus among the most important
motives. Studies of sports events volunteers also showed the importance of social
motivations such as belonging to a community, social contact and friendship, to be needed
by society, national and cultural pride, but also egoistic motives of personal development
and self-esteem (Kemp, 2002; Downward and Ralston, 2005).
What are the strongest member motivational dimensions? Based on the literature review,
member motivations are viewed as multidimensional, although here we assume that motives
can be linked to three broad categories: altruism (doing good for others), self-interest (doing
good for yourself), and social aspects (doing good with others). In this study we argue that
altruistic motivation is strong, especially since we study a tourist attraction with a mission to
preserve endangered species. Furthermore there may be strong self-interest motives as
membership fees often include free/discount admission and earlier studies showed that
altruistic and egoistic motivations are not mutually exclusive (Wymer et al., 1997).
Accordingly this study’s ?rst hypothesis is as follows:
H1. The strongest member motivational dimensions are altruism and self-interest.
Regarding member demographics and motivational dimensions, existing membership
research showed con?icting views of age and gender related to memberships (Bhattacharya
et al., 1995; Paswan and Troy, 2004; Shelley and Polonsky, 2002). Several membership studies
however showed a female majority (from 65-69 per cent) and large proportion of older
respondents age 50 and above (Edwards, 2005; Glynn et al., 1996; Paswan and Troy, 2004;
Slater, 2003b). Therefore we here propose that gender is related to member motivations. We
furthermore assume that age is related to motivational dimensions since age may be linked to
member’s level of income, amount of leisure time, and physical condition.
H2a. Gender is related to all member motivations.
H2b. Age is related to all member motivations.
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Member behaviours as interactions in membership relationships
Contemporary marketing focuses on relationship themes related to active consumers who
are interacting and networking co-creators of value (cf. Gro¨ nroos, 2008; Prahalad and
Ramaswamy, 2000; Randall et al., 2011). Shaw and Williams (2009) pointed out interactions
as critical touch points at which the organisations interact with the individual costumer. The
interaction process helps organisations to acquire and increase their knowledge of
customers and their preferences and to conduct marketing activities with the customers, not
for them (Ramani and Kumar, 2008; Shaw and Williams, 2009; Srinivasan et al., 2002).
Members are here viewed as consumers and active participants (see Vargo and Lusch,
2004), and thereby important sources of competence (e.g. Prahalad and Ramaswamy,
2000). Member behaviours in membership relationships are of interest since members
choose their individual level of interaction and use of member offerings (Gruen et al., 2000).
Based on previous research we argue that members’ behaviours are linked to members’
underlying motives. In this study members’ behaviours are viewed as different kinds of
interactions within a membership relationship. Member behaviours are studied as retention,
i.e. returning and renewing memberships/duration; participation, i.e. use of member
services, in this case visits, and co-production or co-creation, i.e. voluntary involvement in
the production and/or marketing of the supported organisation (Gruen et al., 2000) here as
spreading word-of mouth, recruiting new members, and performing volunteer work.
Distance will be brie?y mentioned in this study since many memberships attract members
living in different locations and thus have a geographically dispersed membership base.
Spatial aspects of membership motivations and behaviours are of interest since issues of
distance may act as a barrier to active involvement (Sargeant, 2005).
What motives are related to member retention? Member retention refers to the returning
behaviour of members who renew their membership from one year to the next. Membership
may create a sense of belonging and identi?cation with an organisation (Bhattacharya et al.,
1995). Previous member research reported on loyal returning members (see Glynn et al.,
1996; Slater, 2003b). Bhattacharya (1998) pointed out that longer membership duration
signi?cantly diminishes members’ lapsing rate. Motivations to renewa membership and stay
on as an active member is further linked to factors such as a volunteer-friendly environment,
positive relations between paid staff and volunteers (Bussell and Forbes, 2002) and to ‘‘the
extent to which the volunteers ?nd their work meaningful, feel responsible for the outcomes
and perceive recognition and appreciation for their work’’ (Steen, 2006, p. 54). Therefore, in
the third hypothesis we argue that all motivational dimensions are related to retention
(i.e. duration of membership).
H3. Retention is related to all motivational dimensions
What motives are related to member participation? Member participation refers to the extent
a member uses or consumes the member offerings, e.g. supporting, visiting, buying
products or services, attending meetings or special events, reading the member magazine
or member e-mail, or visiting the member web site. Studies of art museum members
indicated the ‘‘paradox of buying membership and then not using its participating
privileges’’ (Glynn et al., 1996, p. 260), since many members do not visit frequently. Other
studies also show that members are non-visitors and are not present at the supported
organisation though they do enjoy their membership and ‘‘transact at arms’ length’’ using
mail, member magazines, and web sites (Bhattacharya, 1998, p. 32). The level of member
participation can be categorised as high actives that participate and are involved in the
relationship, moderate actives that participate frequently but are not highly involved, and
inactive members who participate infrequently but maintain membership (Kotler and Kotler,
1998). This is in line with Hood’s (1995) proposed three levels of visitor participation as
frequent participants who visit the supported organisation at least three times a year,
occasional participants who visit once or twice a year and hardly ever, or non-participants
visiting less than once a year. Studies of members’ participation such as use of services,
e.g. visiting, reported many similarities in motivations between members and visitors
(Holmes, 2003; Holmes and Edwards, 2008). Regarding participation with focus on visiting
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the attraction we thus propose that many members are visitors (see Holmes, 2003; Holmes
and Edwards, 2008) and that they are motivated by all motivational dimensions, especially
self-interest, e.g. free admission and enjoyment.
H4. Participation, as visiting, is related to all motives, especially to self-interest.
What motives are related to member co-creation? The concept of co-creation has developed
within marketing research and it has been argued that marketing research experiences a
co-creation paradigm (see, e.g. Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2000; Ramaswamy, 2009). In
service marketing Vargo and Lusch (2004) presented a service-dominated logic stating that
‘‘the customer is a co-producer of service’’ (p. 7), later re?ned to emphasise the
collaborative nature of value creation to ‘‘the customer is always a co-creator of value’’
(Vargo and Lusch, 2008, p. 7). According to Randall et al. (2011, p. 5), co-creation refers to
‘‘an evolutionary process that occurs not only between the ?rm and the customer but also
among the community of customers’’. Value is co-created when customers interact with
organisations, staff or with a community of other customers (Ramaswamy, 2009).
Co-creation is a joint process of creation of value and all kinds of interactions are critical
for creation of value (Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2004). Gummesson et al. (2010)
encouraged further research with a holistic perspective on multiple levels of interaction
among customers, ?rms, government, and political and economic organisations, since all
levels interact and in?uence each other. Calls have been made for further research into
dimensions of the complex co-creation mechanism in customer relationships (Randall et al.,
2011). This present study responds to this call and member co-creation is here viewed as
customer involvement in the production of an organisation’s products, services, and/or
marketing (i.e. volunteering and/or marketing) as suggested by Gruen et al. (2000, p. 37).
Active members may accordingly act as co-creators when they are performing volunteer work
linked to the organisation’s products or services. Volunteering is often a long-term regular
behaviour (Penner, 2002) and as concluded by Gruen et al. (2000) in long-term relationships
‘‘customers go beyond consuming the product of the organisation: they become
co-producers who participate in the value creation of the selling organisation’’ (p. 35). The
nature of consumer value is de?ned in this study as ‘‘an interactive relativistic preference
experience’’ (Holbrook, 1999, p. 5). Consumer value entails interaction between a consumer
(here a member) and some object (e.g. a product, a service, an organisation, people).
Consumer value is relativistic, hence it is personal and varying, situational and involves
preference. Consumer value is an experience since value resides not in the brand or the
product but rather in the consumption experience(s) (Holbrook 1999). In studies on
volunteering rates by nation, in some European countries such as the Scandinavian countries,
where most social welfare is provided by government funding, most volunteers tend to be
active in leisure and recreation contexts or related to civic issues and social movements
(Hodgkinson, 2003). In tourism settings the number of volunteers is reported to be increasing
(Deery et al., 1997; Gallarza et al., 2009; Holmes and Smith, 2009; Jago and Deery, 2002). In
studies of active volunteering members (Olsson, 2010), volunteering is summed up as a way
of living: ‘‘I ama person with experience of working in non-pro?t organisations – that’s the way
I’m raised’’ (p. 422). Members emphasised the importance of participation and being
involved: ‘‘It is an urge in oneself – to be involved in organisations’’ (ibid. p. 422). Studies of
arts and culture volunteers showed that they often regard their volunteer work as a kind of
patriotic or moral duty (Wymer and Brudney, 2000). This study therefore proposes that:
H5a. Co-creation, as performing voluntary work, is related to altruistic and social
motivations.
Active members spreading word of mouth also act as member co-creators since they are
involved in the organization’s marketing (Gruen et al., 2000). Members may spread word of
mouth (WOM) and recommendations or make suggestions for improvements of products
and services. Co-creating members may also be viewed as part-time marketers in their roles
as unpaid supporters and advocates since they ‘‘carry out marketing activities but, in
contrast to the full-time marketers, the FTMs, they do not belong to the marketing or sales
department’’ (Gummesson, 1991, p. 60). Member co-creative marketing behaviours such as
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spreading information (WOM) and recruiting new members are elements of social
interactions in communities. Members, like today’s consumers, are often active and interact
with ?rms but also with other members (Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2003) sharing a common
interest or need and hence form communities of like-minded people (see Schouten and
McAlexander, 1995; Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001). Word of mouth is a vital element of social
interaction and may be de?ned as an ‘‘informal, person-to-person communication between
a perceived non-commercial communicator and a receiver regarding a brand, a product, an
organization, or a service’’ (Harrison-Walker, 2001, p. 63). Brown et al. (2005) pointed out
that WOM may include communication in person or via some communication medium.
Hence member marketing behaviours such as spreading WOM and recruiting new
members may occur in communities in person, face to face, as well as in cyberspace.
Therefore, based on previous research we argue that member’s marketing behaviours such
as spreading WOM and recruiting new members are related to all motivational dimensions.
H5b. Co-creation, as marketing behaviour, i.e. spreading WOM, is related to all
motivational dimensions.
H5c. Co-creation, as marketing behaviour, i.e. recruiting new members, is related to all
motivational dimensions.
As mentioned earlier existing membership research showed con?icting views of age and
gender. This study therefore assumes that age and gender are related to all member
behaviours.
H6a. Gender is related to all member behaviours.
H6b. Age is related to all member behaviours.
Methodology
The research site for this study was a major Swedish tourist attraction, Nordens Ark (‘‘Nordic
Ark’’). The selected attraction is a private nonpro?t foundation dedicated to saving and
preserving endangered animals through breeding programs, reintroduction programs,
research, and information. It is open to visitors year round and has about 100,000 visitors a
year. The membership has a base of approximately 5,300 members. The tourist attraction is
of national and international interest with members from Sweden and many other countries.
The idea of the membership organisation, Sto¨ dfo¨ reningen Nordens Ark (SNA), is to support
the attraction economically as well as ideologically. Membership can be individual (adult or
child) or family. The member bene?ts offered are free admission, a member magazine twice
a year, a discount at the gift shop, and occasional member-only events. The member
organisation contributes a monetary gift to the foundation (around 1-1.5 million SEK a year,
which approximately corresponds to 4-5 per cent of the total turnover of the tourist
attraction).
Study design and data collection procedures
This study is part of a research project that started in 2007. The ?rst step was an exploratory
pre-study with participant observations, shadowing, and semi-structured interviews with
members at the attraction to approach the membership phenomenon. The pre-study
addressed the consumer’s perspective of active membership (Olsson, 2010). In this study a
survey was developed based on the pre-study and a thorough review of previous research
on members and memberships. The two-page questionnaire consisted of three sections that
addressed demographics, motivations, and behaviours. The questionnaire was pre-tested
(Kinnear and Taylor, 1996) by ?ve members. Revision of the questionnaire followed and a
total of 2,875 questionnaires were distributed enclosed with the member magazine to all
individual (adult) members and family members. To improve the response rate a short notice
about the study was printed in the member magazine. A total of 755 completed surveys were
received giving a response rate of 26.3 per cent. Unfortunately the quality of the
membership register and limited access precluded additional follow-ups or reminders. At
the time of the study the member register and administration were formally incorporated into
the management of the tourist attraction. With reference to Hayes and Slater’s (2003)
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typology of membership organisation this may be referred to as a transformation from a
semi-professional member organisation (Public Member’s Scheme) into a more formally
integrated member organisation (Integrated Membership Scheme). Member register and
member administration are now run by professional staff at the attraction. However, the
response rate corresponds to other membership studies, e.g. 26.2 per cent (Paswan and
Troy, 2004) and 30 per cent (Glynn et al., 1996; Slater, 2003b).
Study variables and data analysis procedures
Variables were measured as follows. Demographic variables included gender, age, and
distance in kilometres between members’ homes and the supported attraction.
Motivations of membership were measured as the respondent’s level of agreement with
thirteen statements (‘‘I am a member because . . . ’’) with a ?ve-point interval scale with
anchors of 1 ¼ ‘‘strongly disagree’’ to 5 ¼ ‘‘strongly agree’’ (see Table I). The motivational
statements were constructed inspired by Holbrook’s (1999) framework for analysis of
consumer value assuming that consumers are motivated by an individual mix of aspects of
value in membership. Holbrook’s framework is appropriate to study membership since it
captures self-oriented, other-oriented, extrinsic and intrinsic aspects of consumer value (see
studies by Gallarza et al., 2009). The motivational dimensions were constructed by using
factor analysis with varimax rotation, and extraction of factors with eigenvalue above 1 was
conducted (Kinnear and Taylor, 1996; Mooi and Sarstedt, 2011).
Behaviour as retention was measured based on statements of being a new member or an
estimate of duration in number of years. Participation as usage of service was measured as
respondent’s estimate of number of visits per year. Co-creation, referring to member
involvement in the production of an organisation’s products, services, and/or marketing, was
measured as respondents being asked whether they performed volunteer work and if they
spread information (WOM) about the attraction (NA) and the member organisation (SNA),
and if they recruited new members.
Data were analysed using SPSS 19. For several variables the distributional shape was either
heavily skewed or irregular and was therefore categorised. The distance between home and
the park was dichotomized as short distance (maximum 100 km) and long distance.
Membership duration was dichotomized into long-term member (more than ?ve years) or
short-term member. Age was dichotomized into older (above 60 years) and younger. All
these dichotomisations were based on using the median as cut-off. Furthermore a member
who visits the attraction at least three times a year was classi?ed as a frequent visitor,
between one to two times was classi?ed as an occasional visitor and zero times as a
Table I Factor analysis of motivation statements
Components
Altruistic Self-intrest Social
Motivation statements a ¼ 0.76 a ¼ 0.68 a ¼ 0.67
‘‘I am a member because’’ . . .
I support endangered animals 0.55
I get knowledge 0.67
I feel that I do something good 0.77
I feel proud 0.70
I feel that my support is appreciated 0.78
I get member discount/lower entrance fee 0.72
I visit frequently 0.85
I spend my leisure time at the attraction 0.66
I am having fun 0.50
I support cultural arrangements 0.75
I meet pleasant people 0.44
I participate in cultural arrangements at the attraction 0.76
I feel that I belong to a community 0.69
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non-visitor, a categorisation suggested by Hood (1995) and applied in studies by,
e.g. Holmes (2003) and Holmes and Edwards (2008).
For testing signi?cance between two categorised variables the classical chi-square test was
used. For comparing motives between two groups either the t-test or Welsh test (when
Levene’s test indicated heteroscedasticity) was used (Mooi and Sarstedt, 2011).
The response variables long-term member (yes/no), frequent visitor (yes/no), spread
information (about the tourist attraction, NA, about the member organisation, SNA, yes/no),
recruit new members (yes/no), volunteering (yes/no) were also all analysed in multivariate
analyses using logistic regression. In the multiple model gender, age group (older/younger),
distance (short/long), and motives were used as main explanatory factors and covariates. In
an explorative manner we also analysed potential interactions between signi?cant
demographics and motivations, but found no signi?cant interaction effects. All results
presented are with main effects only. The model was accepted only if Hosmer and
Lemeshow test was not signi?cant.
Generally p-values below 0.05 were considered signi?cant (Bryman and Bell, 2007).
However, due to the large number of tests performed, all p-values should be interpreted with
care, i.e. not be regarded as strong con?rmative evidence.
Findings
Sample description
The sample of 755 respondents included a majority (61 per cent) of female respondents as
illustrated in Table II. The age of respondents ranged from 15-90 years with an average of 57
years. The males were 59 years old on average and females were 56 on average
( p , 0.001). Respondents lived within 2-5,000 km from the tourist attraction. The median
distance was 100km (90 minutes’ drive by car) for males and females alike. The
characteristics of the sample corresponded to the sampling frame with a membership base
with a female majority and an average age of 60 years. Demographics of gender and age
were fairly consistent to sample characteristics of other membership studies showing female
majority (from 65-69 per cent) and large proportion of ageing respondents age 50 and
above (Edwards, 2005; Glynn et al., 1996; Paswan and Troy, 2004; Slater, 2003b).
Motivational dimensions
The results from the factor analysis used for constructing the Altruistic, Self-interest and
Social motivational dimensions are illustrated in Table I. The reliability for each of the
motivational dimensions were Altruistic (?ve items, Cronbach’s alpha 0.76), Self-interest
(four items, Cronbach’s alpha 0.68), and Social (four items, Cronbach’s alpha 0.67).
Cronbach’s alpha above 0.6 is generally accepted in exploratory research (Hair et al., 2006).
Table II Member demographics
Number Percentage
Gender
Female 452 61
Male 294 39
Age (15-90 years)
Older members (age 60 þ ) 372 49
Younger members (younger than 60 years) 383 51
Distance (2-5.000km from the attraction)
(Short distance (max 100km) 435 58
Long distance (more than 100km) 320 42
Note: n ¼ 755
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Member Motivations
According to our hypothesis (H1) altruistic and self-interest motives were strongest, and
furthermore hypothesis H2a showed that gender was a signi?cant factor for these motives.
The altruistic dimension was on average 3.9 for males and 4.3 for females ( p , 0.001), the
self-interest dimension was on average 2.9 for males and 3.2 for females ( p , 0.001), while
the social dimension was on average 2.3 and 2.4 for males and females, respectively
( p . 0.20). Furthermore, older members (above age 60) showed no signi?cant difference in
altruistic motive (4.2 vs 4.1, p ¼ 0.011), signi?cantly lower self-interest motive (2.9 vs 3.2,
p , 0.001), and higher social motive (2.5 vs 2.2 p , 0.007), when compared to younger
members. Hypothesis H2b was therefore partly supported as altruism was not signi?cantly
related to age. Regarding distance results showed that members living at a long distance
(more than 100km) had signi?cantly higher altruistic motive (4.2 vs 4.0 p ¼ 0.001), lower
self-interest motive (2.8 vs 3.3 p . 0.001), and lower social motive (2.2 vs 2.5 p . 0.001),
when compared to members living closer to the park.
Member behaviours
Regarding member behaviours such as retention, ?ndings showed that the majority of
respondents (88 per cent) have been members for more than one year. The duration of
membership ranged fromone to 23 years with a mean value of 7.1. A majority (54 per cent) of
all respondents have been a member for more than ?ve years, i.e. long-term members.
Regarding hypothesis H3 results showed that long-term members had signi?cantly lower
self-interest motive (odds ratio (OR) 0.8, p ¼ 0.006), when compared to members with
shorter duration of membership. We found no relationship between retention and altruistic
motives ( p . 0.20), neither to social motives ( p ¼ 0.071), see Table III. According to
hypothesis H6a gender was not signi?cantly related to retention. However, regarding
hypothesis H6b there was a signi?cant relationship between membership duration and age
(OR (older/younger) ¼ 2.5, p , 0.001). Among older members (above age 60), 67 per cent
had been long-term members, while the corresponding ?gure among younger members
was 42 per cent. Furthermore, distance was not signi?cantly related to member retention.
Findings showed that member participation behaviour, here visits, ranged from 0-40 visits a
year with a median value of 2. A categorisation of visitors based on number of visits
suggested by Hood (1995) showed 13 per cent non-visitors, 58 per cent occasional visitors
(one or two visits a year) and 29 per cent frequent visitors (at least three visits a year).
Frequent visitors showed a signi?cantly lower altruistic motive (OR ¼ 0.6, p ¼ 0.001), higher
self-interest motive (OR ¼ 3.6, p , 0.001), when compared to less frequent visitors hence
supporting hypothesis H4. However we did not ?nd a signi?cant relationship to social
motives, see Table III. Regarding hypotheses H6a and H6b results showed that participation
(visits) was not signi?cantly related to gender and age. Among the frequent visitors 81 per
Table III Multiple logistic regression model of member retention and member participation
Member retention Member participation
Long-term member Frequent visitor
Odds-ratio p-value Odds-ratio p-value
Demographics
Gender 0.9 .0.20 1.0 .0.20
Age group 2.5 ,0.001 1.0 .0.20
Distance 1.0 .0.2 3.5 ,0.001
Motivations
Altruistic 1.1 .0.2 0.6 0.001
Self-interest 0.8 0.006 3.6 ,0.001
Social 1.2 0.071 1.1 .0.20
Notes: Dependent variables: Long-termmember (member more than ?ve years yes/no) and Frequent
visitor (at least three visits a year yes/no); Distance (max 100km? yes/no); Age group (older than age
60? yes/no)
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cent live closer than 100 km from the park, while the corresponding ?gure is 48 per cent
among less frequent visitors (OR ¼ 3.5, p , 0.001).
Regarding member co-creation behaviours such as volunteer work and marketing (WOMand
recruitment), ?ndings showed that performing volunteer work and recruitment of new
members had considerably lower results of 4 and 15 per cent respectively, whereas as many
as 84 per cent spread WOMabout the tourist attraction (NA) and around 58 per cent about the
member organisation (SNA). H5a was partly supported as volunteering was signi?cantly
related to the social motive (OR ¼ 3.0, p , 0.001) but not to the other motivational dimensions.
Volunteering was not signi?cantly related to gender, age or distance, as shown in Table IV.
Regarding spreading WOM, hypothesis H5b was partly supported and results showed that
co-creation behaviours such as spreading WOM were signi?cantly related to altruistic
motives, i.e. higher motive increases the odds for activity. Self-interest motives were also
signi?cantly related to spreading WOM. Members who spread WOM and hence acted as
part-time marketers had signi?cantly higher motives than members not taking part in
marketing activities. Members who spread WOM about the tourist attraction (NA) had
signi?cantly higher altruistic motives (OR ¼ 1.45, p ¼ 0.020), higher self-interest motives
(OR ¼ 1.60, p , 0.001),b, when compared to members who did not spread this information,
see Table IV. There was no relationship between WOM (NA) and social motives. Regarding
spreading WOM about the membership organisation (SNA) all motives were signi?cant;
altruistic (OR ¼ 1.40, p ¼ 0.008), self-interest (OR ¼ 1.30, p ¼ 0.009) and social
(OR ¼ 1.30, p ¼ 0.023). According to hypothesis H6a ?ndings showed that there was no
signi?cant relationship between gender and spreading WOM. Hypothesis H6b was partly
supported since results showed that spreading WOM was signi?cantly related to age.
Among older members, 87 per cent gave information about NA, and 67 per cent gave
information about SNA. Among younger members the corresponding ?gures were 80 per
cent ( p ¼ 0.004) and 49 per cent ( p , 0.001), see Table IV.
Recruitment of new members was only signi?cantly related to self-interest motives
(OR ¼ 1.93, p , 0.001), hence H5c is only partly supported.
There was no signi?cant relationship between marketing activities and distance. As
expected, members who lived at a short distance took part more frequently in volunteer work
(5 per cent) than members living at a further distance (2 per cent p ¼ 0.017). In the
multivariate analysis distance was not signi?cantly related to any co-creation behaviours. In
an explorative manner we also analysed potential interactions between signi?cant
demographics and motivations, but found no signi?cant interaction effects.
Table IV Multiple logistic regression model of member co-creation
Member co-creation behaviours
Marketing/part-time marketer
Volunteer WOM NA WOM SNA Recruiter
Odds-ratio p-value Odds-ratio p-value Odds-ratio p-value Odds-ratio p-value
Demographics
Gender 1.52 .0.20 1.06 .0.20 1.04 .0.20 0.81 .0.20
Age group 1.71 .0.20 1.95 0.004 2.25 ,0.001 1.39 .0.20
Distance 1.85 .0.20 0.88 .0.20 0.89 .0.20 1.02 .0.20
Motivations
Altruistic 1.09 .0.20 1.45 0.020 1.40 0.008 1.39 0.090
Self-interest 1.11 .0.20 1.60 ,0.001 1.30 0.009 1.93 ,0.001
Social 3.00 ,0.001 1.14 .0.20 1.30 0.023 1.18 .0.20
Notes: Dependent variables ‘‘Volunteer’’ (perform voluntary work yes/no), ‘‘Part-time marketer’’ (spread information about NA yes/no),
spread info about SNA yes/no), ‘‘Recruiter’’ (recruiting new members yes/no); Distance (max 100km? yes/no); Age group (older age 60?
yes/no)
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Discussion and conclusion
The purpose of this study was to provide insights into motivations and behaviours of
members at a nonpro?t tourist attraction and hence contribute to the emerging ?eld of
membership research.
Implications
More speci?cally this explorative study of members of a nonpro?t tourist attraction contributes
insights into why consumers are members (motivational dimensions), how motivations are
related to member behaviours in a membership relationship context, and how member
demographics are related to motivations and behaviours. The present study identi?ed
signi?cant relations between motivations, behaviours, and member demographics. Six
hypotheses were tested and the results are illustrated in an overview in Table V. Implications of
?ndings for researchers and practitioners in tourism settings will be further elaborated.
What are the strongest member motivational dimensions? H1 was supported as ?ndings
showed that among the three motivational dimensions, altruism, i.e. doing good for others,
was the strongest motive, followed by self-interest, i.e. doing good for yourself, and then the
social motive, i.e. doing good with others, which scored lowest. This result seems
reasonable since it corresponds to the mission of the supported organisation. However,
existing research (e.g. Wymer et al., 1997) pointed out that altruistic motivations and
self-interest motivations are not mutually exclusive. Hence, while doing good for others is
important, self –interest motives, e.g. free admission, frequent visits, fun and enjoyment were
still valued by members. This result points out the importance of mutual bene?ts of
relationships.
H2a, i.e. gender is related to member motivations, was partly supported, however, ?ndings
showed that gender was signi?cantly related to altruismand self-interest motivations (stronger
motives for females). H2b, i.e. age is related to member motivations, was partly supported. All
motivations but altruism were signi?cantly related to age (lower self-interest and higher social
motivations for older members). Regarding distance, ?ndings logically showed that members
living at a long distance (more than 100km) had signi?cantly higher altruistic motives and
lower self-interest and social motives than members living close to the attraction. Results
Table V Overview of tested hypotheses
Proposed hypotheses Results
Member motivations
H1 The strongest member motivational dimensions are altruism
and self-interest
Supported
H2a Gender is related to all member motivations Partly supported as altruism and self-interest were signi?cantly
related to gender
H2b Age is related to all member motivations Partly supported as self-interest motivations were signi?cantly
related to retention
Member behaviours – retention, participation and co-creation
H3 Retention is related to all motivational dimensions Partly supported as self-interest and social motivations were
signi?cantly related to retention
H4 Participation, as visiting, is related to all motives, especially to
self-interest
Supported
H5 a. Co-creation, as performing voluntary work, is related to
altruistic and social motivations
Partly supported as social motivations were signi?cantly
related to voluntary work
b. Co-creation, as marketing behaviour, i.e. spreading WOM, is
related to all motivational dimensions
Partly supported for WOM about the attraction as altruism and
self-interest were signi?cantly related. Supported regarding
WOM about the member organization as all motives were
signi?cantly related
c. Co-creation, as marketing behaviour, i.e. recruiting new
members, is related to all motivational dimensions
Partly supported as self-interest motivations were signi?cantly
related to recruiting
H6 a. Gender is related to all member behaviours Not supported, no signi?cant relations to member behaviours
b. Age is related to all member behaviours Partly supported as retention, WOM and volunteering were
signi?cantly related to age
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indicate that members’ age, gender, and distance related to motivations may be worth
considering when developing membership relationships and membership offerings.
What motives are related to member behaviours such as retention, participation, and
co-creation? How are member motivational dimensions related to key relationship marketing
variables such as retention, participation, and co-creation? Findings of member retention
showed many (54 per cent) long-term members of the attraction. Applying a relationship
marketing perspective, memberships are tools for retaining customers and this study showed
that many members stayed loyal and renewed their memberships year after year,
corresponding to other membership studies (Glynn et al., 1996; Slater, 2003b). H3
i.e. retention is related to all motivational dimensions, was not fully supported since altruism
and social motives were not signi?cantly related to retention. However, retention was
signi?cantly related to self-interest motives (lower for long-term members) and age (higher
age for long-term members). In this study long-term members at the tourist attraction were
hence older and value member discount, lower entrance fee, frequent visits, spending their
leisure time, and having fun lower than short-term members did. Retention was however not
related to distance. The ability to retain members is of importance especially for nonpro?t
organisations that struggle to survive. These ?ndings indicate a need for tourism managers
and researchers to further study member loyalty, retention, and lapsing behaviours linked to
motives and demographics.
This study showed that members are involved in a relationshipwith the supported organisation
and do participate by visiting the supported attraction. Findings showed as many as 58 per
cent occasional visitors and 29 per cent frequent visitors among the studied members. This
study con?rms earlier studies and the view of members as an important segment of
committed, frequent visitors that want to spend their leisure time at the supported attraction
(Holmes, 2003). In this sense ?ndings do not correspond to studies of art museum members
by Glynn et al. (1996) that reported high numbers of members as non-visitors not using their
participating privileges. H4 was partly supported since participation was signi?cantly related
to altruism and self-interest motives. Analyses showed that participation such as visiting was
signi?cantly related to self-interest motives (higher for frequent visitors). Furthermore, this was
also signi?cant regarding altruistic motives (hence lower for frequent visitors), and distance
(higher for members living within a short distance). To conclude, this study showed that
members were not merely giving ?nancial support or working for free, they were frequent
visitors who tended to live within 100km from the attraction, and valued altruism lower and
self-interest motives higher when compared to less frequent visitors. This is an implication of
interest for managers developing membership programs and membership levels, to consider
that participation such as visiting may be a possible means of member segmentation. The
earlier mentioned paradox of paying a member fee but not using the member privileges (see
Glynn et al., 1996) indicating passive consumptions (see Slater and Armstrong, 2010) seems
not to be applicable in the present study. Furthermore, visitation and use of member offerings
give members opportunities to experience and personally inspect the attraction’s use of
member support (Gruen, 2000), and this may also affect member retention.
In this study member co-creation was studied as volunteering and marketing behaviours.
Volunteering was only signi?cantly related to social motives but not to altruistic motivations,
hence H5a was not fully supported. Members who showed marketing behaviours such as
WOM and recruiting showed higher motives than members not taking part in marketing.
Findings of members as part-time marketers are worth considering for membership managers
since as many as 80 per cent stated that they spread WOM about the supported attraction.
Analyses showed that spreading WOM about the supported organisation (NA), i.e. the
attraction, was signi?cantly related to altruistic motives (higher for part-time marketers),
self-interest motives (higher for part-time marketers) and age (higher for older members). In
other words, older members who valued altruism and self-interest tended to spread WOM
about the attraction. The same pattern was shown regarding the WOM about the member
organisation (SNA), though here all motives were were signi?cantly related to spreading WOM
(higher for part-time marketers). H5b, i.e. co-creation as marketing (WOM), is related to all
motivational dimensions, was partly supported for WOM about the attraction and fully
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supported regarding WOMabout the member organisation. H5c, i.e. recruiting is related to all
motivational dimensions, was partly supported. Recruiting did show low ?gures and was only
signi?cantly related to self-interest motives. This study contributes empirical ?ndings on
behaviours of members as part-time marketers as one aspect of the concept of co-creation.
Furthermore this study contributes empirical results of member co-creation focused on
volunteering, spreading WOM, and recruiting new members. There are however several
interesting relationship marketing aspects in member co-creation behaviours that need closer
attention in further research, e.g. how, when, and where do members spread WOM? It may be
vital for managers to identify those high-value members who are most likely to recruit other
members through WOM in order to develop competitive strategies to recruit new members
and increase the number of volunteers, especially vital for nonpro?ts struggling to survive.
H6a, i.e. gender is related to all member behaviours, was not supported since ?ndings did
not show any signi?cant relations to member behaviours. H6b, i.e. age is related to member
behaviours, was partly supported as retention (older members are more long-term
members) and co-creation (regarding WOM older members were more active) were
signi?cantly related.
Implications, limitations and suggestions for further research. The present study points out
why consumers are members of a nonpro?t tourist attraction revealing underlying motivational
dimensions of membership that are of importance to understandfor managers within a tourism
context since ?ndings indicate that members are returning loyal consumers. Furthermore
?ndings regarding member demographics and motivations are worth considering and may
have implications for development of membership programs, membership levels, and
member offerings linked to gender, age, and distance. Other membership studies point out
the importance of social relations, need of identi?cation, and belonging to a community (see
Prouteau and Wolff, 2008; Smith, 2003). The lower rank of the social motives of membership in
this study indicates a need to consider the member’s relationship and the selection of social
member offerings at the tourist attraction, but also to use social media and other information
technology for long-distance members.
Memberships are currently used as competitive relationship marketing tools to retain
customers, build relationships and encourage member participation. Membership managers’
abilities to target the high-active or ‘‘high-contribution’’ members (Randle and Dolnicar, 2009)
are important in order to use the full potential of memberships. Knowledge and understanding
of members’ motivations and behaviours are of strategic and competitive importance in
building ef?cient membership programs based on relationships with mutual bene?ts (Bussell
and Forbes, 2006). In a paid employment relationship there are opportunities to motivate and
control employees with wages and monetary bene?ts whereas members have different
dimensions of motivations to join or to continue their relationships with the supported
organisation (Monga, 2006; Olsson, 2010). Knowledge and understanding of members’
motives and behaviours may be of strategic importance in the future survival of attractions run
by nonpro?ts such as museums or gardens as well as events and festivals.
In our contemporary society various relationship marketing tools are used to enhance loyalty
and to build relationships. This study contributes to the developing ?eld of membership
research as it is a response to the calls for more empirical studies of members
(Bhattacharya, 1998), furthermore ?lling some gaps in the ambition to reach ‘‘an integrated
understanding of individuals’ motivations for joining, using, and retaining membership’’
(Slater, 2003b, p. 185). Regarding co-creation calls have been made for more research into
the complex co-creation mechanism in customer relationships as a new research area
(Randall et al., 2011). The present study addresses these calls and furthermore identi?es
signi?cant relations between motivations, behaviours, and member demographics.
Finally, some study limitations need to be mentioned. This explorative study was conducted
at a single nonpro?t tourist attraction. However, it provides insights into different motivational
dimensions for why people pay to become members and what kind of member behaviours
they demonstrate. Findings have implications for membership managers and the
development of memberships in terms of giving a deeper insight into members as
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consumers in order to develop memberships as strategic resources and hence use the full
potential of memberships. Several aspects of memberships are discussed that may inspire
the development of member offerings in tourismsettings. This topic calls for further research
to explore the complex membership phenomenon such as extending this study by
identifying member motives and behaviour in other contexts.
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Bohlin, M. (2000), ‘‘Travelling to events’’, in Mossberg, L.L. (Ed.), Evaluation of Events: Scandinavian
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Corresponding author
Anna Karin Olsson can be contacted at: [email protected]
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