Description
The study aims to examine Jamaican managers’ perceptions of the ten-year master plan
(2000) for tourism sustainability and its effectiveness in achieving inclusive, community-based
development and growth. The research seeks to determine how much progress has been made and
discusses implications for the Jamaican tourism industry.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Developing sustainable tourism: managers' assessment of Jamaica's ten-year master plan
Pamela A. Kennett-Hensel J ulie Z. Sneath Paul J . Hensel
Article information:
To cite this document:
Pamela A. Kennett-Hensel J ulie Z. Sneath Paul J . Hensel, (2010),"Developing sustainable tourism: managers' assessment of J amaica's
ten-year master plan", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 4 Iss 2 pp. 143 - 155
Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17506181011045217
Downloaded on: 24 January 2016, At: 22:10 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 69 other documents.
To copy this document: [email protected]
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 1738 times since 2010*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
Carmen Padin, (2012),"A sustainable tourism planning model: components and relationships", European Business Review, Vol. 24 Iss 6 pp.
510-518http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09555341211270528
Erick T. Byrd, (2007),"Stakeholders in sustainable tourism development and their roles: applying stakeholder theory to sustainable tourism
development", Tourism Review, Vol. 62 Iss 2 pp. 6-13http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/16605370780000309
Lynn C. Harrison, Chandana J ayawardena, Anthony Clayton, (2003),"Sustainable tourism development in the Caribbean:
practical challenges", International J ournal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 15 Iss 5 pp. 294-298 http://
dx.doi.org/10.1108/09596110310482227
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:115632 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service information about
how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/
authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of more than
290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional
customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and
also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Developing sustainable tourism:
managers’ assessment of Jamaica’s
ten-year master plan
Pamela A. Kennett-Hensel, Julie Z. Sneath and Paul J. Hensel
Abstract
Purpose – The study aims to examine Jamaican managers’ perceptions of the ten-year master plan
(2000) for tourism sustainability and its effectiveness in achieving inclusive, community-based
development and growth. The research seeks to determine how much progress has been made and
discusses implications for the Jamaican tourism industry.
Design/methodology/approach – An online survey containing 16 open- and close-ended questions
was sent to 540 Jamaican managers and executives; 99 surveys were completed and used for analysis.
Findings – The ?ndings indicate Jamaica’s ten-year master plan has the correct focus. The goals of the
plan are viewed as important. Goals related to heritage-based tourism and infrastructure improvements
and accessibility are perceived as successfully developed. Weaknesses appear in the implementation
and development of community-based, inclusive tourism and environmentally sustainable tourism.
Some signi?cant differences between those employed in tourism/hospitality and those employed in
other industries are discussed.
Research limitations/implications – The results may not be generalizable across all socio-economic
strata since survey participants are limited to educated business professionals. However, their inclusion
– or lack thereof – in decisions that could help achieve the plan’s goals, suggests de?ciencies in
implementation that may be valid across social strata and destinations.
Originality/value – This study examines managers’ assessments of hard and soft targets for a
sustainable tourism industry. Using a community-based approach to planning and development, the
researchers explore opportunities to enhance tourism growth and sustainability.
Keywords Tourism, Strategic planning, Community planning, Brands, Jamaica
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
In its latest US$3 million promotional campaign, the Jamaica Tourist Board (JTB) touts
‘‘Jamaica – Once you go, you know’’ (Jamaica Tourist Board, 2009a; Silvera, 2008a). In
direct contrast to stereotypes of Jamaica’s ‘‘nuh watch nutten’’ or ‘‘don’t worry’’ attitude, the
island nation is very focused on its tourism industry given the pivotal role in the economy.
Tourism is one of the top two economic sectors for Jamaica, with bauxite mining being the
other top industry (Jamaica Tourist Board, 2009b; CIA World Fact Book, 2008). The industry
contributes approximately 25 percent of Jamaica’s gross national product (Bowe, 2005) and
31 percent (or US$3.415 million) to its gross domestic product, and employs over 290,000
individuals (27.1 percent of the island workforce), ranking Jamaica 16th out of 176 countries
in tourism’s relative contribution to the nation’s economy (World Travel and Tourism Council,
2008).
Despite 2008 being a dif?cult year (Jamaica Information Service, 2009a), according to
Minister of Tourism Edmund Bartlett tourism ?gures are encouraging with reports that over
1.75 million individuals visited Jamaica in 2008, representing an increase of 63,000 from the
previous year. Despite a setback due to Hurricane Dean in August 2007 (CIA World Fact
DOI 10.1108/17506181011045217 VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010, pp. 143-155, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 143
Pamela A. Kennett-Hensel
is based at the University of
New Orleans, New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA.
Julie Z. Sneath is based at
the University of South
Alabama, Mobile, Alabama,
USA. Paul J. Hensel is
based at the University of
New Orleans, New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA.
Received January 2009
Revised June 2009
Accepted July 2009
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Book, 2008), these ?gures represent a substantial increase over the past decade when the
number of tourists visiting Jamaica in 2000 has been estimated at 1.323 million (Government
of Jamaica, 2000).
However, cries of ‘‘nuten nah gwaan’’ or ‘‘nothing is happening’’ can be heard fromconcerned
individuals. For instance, the Spring Break market shows signi?cant declines (Silvera, 2007)
and Sandals Resorts International reduced its workforce by 7.5 percent (Silvera, 2008b). Most
daunting is that the winter 2009 tourism season projection is a 30 percent decline due to
worsening economic conditions in Jamaica’s target tourism markets (Silvera, 2008a) at the
same time that the number of hotel rooms on the island are increasing (Manning, 2006a).
These projections echo the United Nations World Tourism Organization’s World Tourism
Barometer that predicts the rapid slowdown of international tourism growth (Silvera, 2008c, p.
1), due to rising oil prices and deteriorating economic conditions. Momentary upheaval has
also occurred within the Jamaica Tourist Board with ?ve members resigning on November 17,
2008 (Silvera, 2008c) and then being reinstated two weeks later (Travelin’ Light, 2008).
These dire predictions for the near future have resulted in a ?urry of activity spearheaded by
the Minister of Tourism and a renewed focus on the government’s ten-year master plan for
tourism – nearly nine years after its inception. This study examines Jamaican managers’
assessment of the island’s tourismindustry with particular focus on the ten-year master plan.
First, a discussion of issues particular to Jamaican tourism is presented followed by an
overview of the master plan. Results of an online survey of Jamaican managers (n ¼ 99) who
have shared their opinions of the plan, brand Jamaica, and Jamaican tourism, in general, are
highlighted along with limitations of this study. Lastly, a discussion of these ?ndings and
implications for the tourism sector are presented.
Issues in Jamaican tourism
Several important issues need consideration when discussing Jamaican tourism. First,
historically, Jamaican tourism marketing depends heavily on the notion of sand, sun and fun
delivered in resort-like settings. Much of the infrastructure for this industry ties into foreign
direct investment (FDI), the level of which in Jamaica has been deemed unprecedented
(Williams and Deslandes, 2008, p. 419). FDI is a natural result of the emphasis that the
government places on mass tourism, with a high spatial concentration on the coastal zones
(Thomas-Hope and Jardine-Comrie, 2007, p. 93). This segment of the industry is saturated
and, consequently, extremely competitive (Williams and Deslandes, 2008). Still, foreign
investment, albeit more diversi?ed, continues to enter the market in conjunction with the
government’s Tourism Expansion Project aimed at increasing the number of hotel rooms on
the island by 11,000 rooms by 2010 (Manning, 2006b). While the Caribbean countries
experiencing the highest economic gains have also had the largest investments in tourism
(Thomas-Hope and Jardine-Comrie, 2007; Springer, 2004), pro?ts from this market often
leave the island with foreign investors. This investment does not create local connections
necessary in what is traditionally a low paying industry (Manning, 2008a) and fosters an
unsophisticated entrepreneurial class (Williams, 2007).
While sand, sun and fun is an enticing tourism concept, no differentiation exists from other
Caribbean and/or Latin American destinations. Jamaica’s differentiation relates to Brand
Jamaica, a term in Jamaican culture and one of the strongest tourism brands in the world
(Kleinhans, 2007). Jamaica conjures up many positive associations, such as music
(especially Bob Marley and reggae), jerk seasoning, gorgeous and diverse scenery, and
relaxed, friendly (‘‘no worries, mon!’’) people. The marketing messages of Jamaican tourism
entities reinforce these images. However, for some individuals, Jamaica conjures up
negative associations such as poverty, drugs, and crime. Harriott (2007) ?nds visitors to the
nation view crime against tourists as being a much greater problem than statistics suggest.
Actual data include only 0.004 percent of 2003 reports by visitors of being criminally
victimized – in comparison to 1.2 percent of the Jamaican population – 300 times lower than
in the resident population (Harriott, 2007). Nevertheless, the persistent problem of high
unemployment (10.2 percent in 2007) fuels a crime and drug trade problem (CIAWorld Fact
Book, 2008), which impacts potential tourists’ perceptions.
PAGE 144
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Thirdly, the Jamaican tourism industry acknowledges its need to diversify its target market.
At one point the US market accounted for nearly 80 percent of the visitors (Kleinhans, 2007).
In 2008, 65 percent of visitors were from the US (Jamaica Information Service, 2009a).
Tourism executives speak of the danger of relying on one market if something catastrophic
such as 9/11 happens within that segment (Kleinhans, 2007; Jamaica Information Service,
2009b) and they need to explore new market opportunities in a saturated Caribbean market.
With diversi?cation of foreign direct investment from countries such as Spain, emerging
opportunities for new target tourist markets exist. Jamaica tourism marketing efforts are
being expanded to target South American and Asian markets, emphasizing the local and
visiting friends and relatives markets (Kleinhans, 2007; Jamaica Information Service,
2009b).
Lastly, those interested in environment and social equity argue that the Jamaican
infrastructure is pushed to a breaking point. Environmentalists contend that large resort
developments and global warming make coastal regions increasingly vulnerable (Manning,
2008b). Others argue that the Jamaican infrastructure is improving as a result of these
projects, citing upgrades in roadways, airports, water supplies, and sewage systems
(McNeill, 2008). A larger socio-economic debate is whether the Jamaican people are better
off as a result of tourism, or if it merely accentuates the gap between the haves and have nots
(Cross, 2006).
Jamaica’s ten-year master plan
In 2000, the Jamaican Ministry of Industry and Tourism developed a ten-year master plan
that focuses on expanding the island’s tourism market by putting the industry on a more
sustainable and bene?cial path. All stakeholders deem the success of this plan to be critical
to Jamaica’s economic well being.
This plan presents ?ve main goals:
1. Growth based on a sustainable Jamaican heritage market position.
2. Enhancing visitor experience by shoring up the tourism infrastructure to broaden the
attraction offerings.
3. Community based development with the purpose of getting citizens involved in bottomup
tourism planning.
4. An inclusive industry in which all citizens participate and bene?t.
5. Environmental sustainability to preserve the island’s natural beauty (Government of
Jamaica, 2000).
Differentiation through developing and expanding Jamaican tourism into nontraditional
areas, such as eco- and cultural tourismis evident throughout the plan (Myers, 2007; Marino,
2008).
Ultimately, success or failure of this very ambitious plan is measurable by examining both
hard and soft targets. Baseline objectives are set for hard indicators such as visitor
expenditure (from 1.3 million in 2000 to US$3 billion in 2010) and direct employment (from
75,000 employed in 2000 to 130,000 employed by 2010) (Government of Jamaica, 2000).
While reports and updates for economic indicators are made on a regular basis (Of?ce of the
Prime Minister, 2008), indicators that assess ful?llment of the government’s soft goals are
more subjective in nature and are not comprehensively assessed. These goals address
many of the critical issues outlined in the previous section, including whether or not the
industry is more inclusive, better embraces Jamaican cultural positioning by capitalizing on
positive Brand Jamaica associations, and preserves the natural environment.
Nearly nine years into the plan, questions are being raised about the master plan’s success,
to date, and the relevance of a plan developed in 2000 given today’s market dynamics
(Manning, 2008b; McNeill, 2008). How much progress has been made? Has the Ministry
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 145
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
succeeded in achieving these objectives? Have other factors impacted the island’s ability to
realize the plan’s goals?
Method
To explore these multi-faceted and far reaching issues for Jamaica and its people, a survey
is developed containing sixteen questions comprised of two distinct sections. First,
respondents are asked nine questions focusing on Jamaican tourism. These questions
capture the following information:
B perceptions relative to the master plan’s goals;
B perception of the Jamaica Tourism Board and industry’s effectiveness in achieving these
goals;
B image of the country, as a brand (Jaffe and Nebenzahl, 2006; Srikatanyoo and Gnoth,
2002), and in comparison to other Caribbean travel destinations;
B associations with Brand Jamaica; and
B additional thoughts regarding attitudes and perceptions of the Master Plan and Jamaican
tourism, in general.
The remaining seven questions are demographic and/or classi?catory in nature, to help
examine possible differences among various groups of respondents.
Sample and sample statistics
The survey is administered via email using online survey software to 540 Jamaican
managers and executives who, within the past 12 years, completed (n ¼ 491) or are
currently enrolled in (n ¼ 49) an Executive MBA program in Kingston, Jamaica. This
population is not only accessible to the researchers; but appropriate because its members
are Jamaican professionals who depend on the success of tourism and tourism-related
industries in this visitor-dependent nation. Among the most educated and business
knowledgeable on the island, their perceptions of and participation in tourism growth and
sustainability are important to the master plan’s success. The sample received an e-mail
highlighting the purpose of the study and containing a link to the survey. A reminder e-mail
was sent approximately two weeks later. A total of 100 individuals participated in the survey.
One survey was discarded for non-response resulting in a usable sample of 99 respondents
(18.3 percent response rate).
The typical respondent currently resides in Jamaica (98.9 percent), is not self-employed
(95.7 percent), and is female (70.2 percent). The modal age group is the 30-39 age range
(42.6 percent), followed by those aged 40-49 (25.5 percent). Respondents report working in
a wide range of industries, with the top three industries being the government (22.3 percent),
banking/?nancial services (18.1 percent), and manufacturing (12.8 percent). Only 4.3
percent work directly in tourism/hospitality. When asked to describe their managerial level,
34.0 percent classify themselves as middle management followed by upper management
(19.1 percent), lower management (19.1 percent) and executive (11.7 percent).
Results
Assessment of the master plan’s importance
Overall, Jamaican managers support the master plan’s goals for sustainable development.
Between 77 and 83 percent of respondents agree or strongly agree that the plan’s goals are
important to the growth of Jamaica tourism. However, they perceive that some goals are
more important than others. Using a four-point scale (1 ¼ very unimportant and 4 ¼ very
important), respondents indicate that the development of Jamaica’s heritage (x ¼ 3.37),
improved infrastructure (x ¼ 3.36) and preserving the environment (x ¼ 3.35) are the three
most important goals, and they characterize inclusiveness and community-based
development as slightly less important, with means of 3.27 and 3.21, respectively.
PAGE 146
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Respondents also rank order these goals frommost to least important, with results that mirror
those of the previous question. Consistency between these two measures indicates reliable
and valid indicators of the priority of the ?ve goals.
Assessment of the master plan’s outcomes
Respondents evaluated outcomes of the master plan by indicating the extent to which they
agreed or disagreed with ?ve goal-related statements using a ?ve-point Likert scale
(1 ¼ strongly disagree and 5 ¼ strongly agree). Results show that improved infrastructure
enhancing visitor experience (x ¼ 3.98) and focusing on Jamaica’s heritage to attract more
visitors (x ¼ 3.37) secure the highest levels of agreement. However, less agreement occurs
for statements that citizens are more involved in tourism planning (x ¼ 3.10), tourism is more
concerned with the environment (x ¼ 2.92), or more inclusive and bene?cial to all Jamaicans
(x ¼ 2.76). The mean response for inclusiveness, environmental protection and community
involvement are signi?cantly lower ( p , 0.05) than those for the goals concerning increased
heritage focused visitors or infrastructure improvements.
Respondents were also asked to provide information concerning their perceptions of the
Jamaica Tourist Board’s (JTB) effectiveness and cooperation by the private tourism industry
to promote and accomplish the Master Plan’s goals (Table I). Fewer than 7 percent of survey
participants strongly agree with any of the statements concerning these broader,
over-arching measures of effectiveness. Although respondents agree that the private
tourismindustry cooperates in attempting to achieve the goals and that the JTB is effective in
promoting them, overall there is much less agreement concerning progress made toward
achieving the Master Plan’s goals and the likelihood that they will be met by 2010.
Study participants also evaluated developments in the tourism sector of Jamaica’s economy
over the past decade (Table II). This question intends to assess more generalized
perceptions of changes in Jamaican tourism outside the perspective of the master plan, as
well as provide evidence of internal validity. With the exception of the
infrastructure/accessibility characteristic, which 17 percent of the respondents strongly
agree is improving, only a small percentage of individuals strongly agree with the
statements. Closer examination of the results suggests that most respondents agree
Jamaican tourism is more accessible, culturally focused, heritage focused, and sustainable,
but fewer agree that the industry is more inclusive of all citizens. The mean agreement
response for the inclusiveness statement (x ¼ 2.63) is signi?cantly lower ( p , 0.02) than
every other mean agreement response to this set of questions.
Table I Progress towards accomplishing master plan goals
Strongly
disagree
(1)
Somewhat
disagree
(2)
Neither agree
or disagree
(3)
Somewhat
agree
(4)
Strongly
agree
(5)
Rating
average
The master plan has a number of goals in addition to the ones that are being asked about in this survey. But considering only those goals
that were asked about in the previous questions (heritage, visitor experience, community based development, inclusiveness, and
environmental sustainability), indicate your level of agreement with each of the next four statements
The Jamaica Tourist Board (JTB) has been
effective in promoting the goals set forth in the
master plan 11 19 22 39 7 3.12
The private tourism industry has cooperated in
attempting to achieve the goals set forth in the
master plan 5 11 31 48 3 3.34
Overall, at this time, good progress has been
made toward achieving the goals set forth in the
master plan 6 15 41 29 7 3.16
Likely the goals set forth in the master plan and
addressed in this survey will be met by 2010 12 31 33 20 2 2.68
Note: n ¼ 98
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 147
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
The variables in Table II correspond with those from the ?rst set of questions concerning
progress towards accomplishing the master plan’s goals. There is a signi?cant correlation
between corresponding levels of agreement for similar goals, providing support for internal
validity of the measures. Speci?cally, the correlations between all applicable pairs of
corresponding variables (e.g. more visitors are coming to Jamaica because of its heritage
and the Jamaican tourism industry has become more focused on Jamaica’s heritage) are
signi?cant (r . 0.22; p , 0.05).
Assessment of Brand Jamaica
Given the importance of brand image in competitive strategy, participants answered
questions about their perceptions of Brand Jamaica and its image, relative to other
Caribbean nations. More than half of all respondents indicate that Jamaica’s image, as a
country, is superior to that of other Caribbean nations and another 25 percent believe the
image is about the same. As a travel destination, 69 percent of respondents believe
Jamaica’s image is superior to the image of other Caribbean nations and 27 percent
believe little difference exists. Even more revealing are responses to an open-ended
question that asks respondents to identify thoughts that come to mind upon hearing the
phrase Brand Jamaica. Nearly two-thirds provide words or phrases associated with
Jamaica’s distinctive heritage and culture; reggae music is identi?ed by 27 respondents
and 23 individuals use the words culture, heritage, or history in their response to this
question. The country’s natural resources (beaches, mountains, foliage, and sea) are
mentioned 21 times.
Additional insights into tourism industry
The ?nal question asks respondents to provide additional feedback on the Jamaican
tourism industry. Their comments reinforce other survey results and underscore the
importance of sustainable tourism with an emphasis on cultural heritage and eco-tourism.
For instance:
Jamaica has traditionally been marketed as sun, sea, and sand. Not enough attention has been
paid to that segment of the market that desires something different. Areas to be considered
include health and wellness (through our hot springs and spas), cultural (through our heritage
sites and art galleries), and sports. While the all-inclusive concept has worked, surveys show that
many tourists want to see the real Jamaica that exists outside walls of the properties.
The responses also reveal the lack of progress and communication with respect to the
master plan:
Table II Perceptions of tourism sector developments
n
Strongly
disagree
(1)
Somewhat
disagree
(2)
Neither agree
or disagree
(3)
Somewhat
agree
(4)
Strongly
agree
(5)
Rating
average
Culturally focused* 93 1 19 15 53 5 3.45
Environmentally friendly 92 0 30 20 33 9 3.23
Inclusive of all citizens* 92 10 36 24 22 0 2.63
Focused on Jamaica’s heritage* 92 1 19 17 51 4 3.41
Accessible 92 0 13 13 50 16 3.75
Sustainable 93 5 16 24 40 8 3.32
Culturally focused* 93 1 19 15 53 5 3.45
Environmentally friendly 92 0 30 20 33 9 3.23
Inclusive of all citizens* 92 10 36 24 22 0 2.63
Focused on Jamaica’s heritage* 92 1 19 17 51 4 3.41
Accessible 92 0 13 13 50 16 3.75
Sustainable 93 5 16 24 40 8 3.32
Notes: *Signi?cant differences ( p , 0.05) were found between those who were employed in tourism/hospitality and those working in
other industries; **the rating average for inclusive of all citizens is signi?cantly lower ( p , 0.02) than every other rating average
PAGE 148
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
There needs to be more sensitization/education of the citizens of the importance of tourism to
Jamaica and the importance of this industry to the common person who is not directly connected
to the industry.
There does not appear to be a compelling or overarching sense of partnership between
government and the populace regarding the goals of the master plan.
Of those providing meaningful responses (n ¼ 36) to the question, only three were positive
or in praise of the tourism industry while 33 were critical in some manner.
Differences based on classi?cations
All close-ended questions are examined for differences based on age, gender, managerial
level (lower, middle, and upper level management), and industry of employment. There are
no signi?cant differences ( p , 0.05) for any of the questions with respect to age, gender or
managerial level thus enhancing the generalizability of the ?ndings. Industry of employment
is examined using two approaches. First, differences across four industry classi?cations –
banking/?nancial services, government, manufacturing, other – are examined. These
classi?cations are derived from the three largest represented industries of employment. No
signi?cant differences emerge from these industry classi?cations.
Only four respondents are employed in the tourism/hospitality industry. Despite the small
number working in this focal industry, their responses are interesting in comparison to the
responses of those not working in tourism/hospitality. When examining perceived
importance of master plan’s goals, there are signi?cant differences ( p , 0.05) with
respect to the importance of the following three goals: developing Jamaica’s heritage,
developing an inclusive industry, and emphasizing environmental sustainability. Individuals
working in the industry perceive each of these goals as more important than their
non-tourism/hospitality counterparts with rating averages of 4.00 vs 3.33, 4.00 vs 3.21, and
4.00 vs 3.29, respectively. Further, when examining progress made over the last decade,
those employed in tourism/hospitality report more progress with respect to certain goals –
speci?cally increase in cultural emphasis, inclusiveness of all citizens, and focus on
Jamaica’s heritage (rating averages of 4.00 vs 3.43, 3.50 vs 2.59, and 4.00 vs 3.39,
respectively; p , 0.05). Lastly, when asked about the image of Jamaica as a travel
destination, in comparison to the image of other Caribbean nations, those working in
tourism/hospitality are less positive than those in other industries who report its image as
only being about equal to its direct competitors.
Research limitations
As with any study, this study has several limitations that must be kept in mind when
considering the results and implications. First, the study represents the opinions of one
segment of the Jamaican people. Respondents are educated business professionals. This
group is relatively homogenous in its views enhancing generalizability of the results to
educated business professionals in Jamaica. However, the results may not represent the
wider island population, nor are they necessarily applicable to other Caribbean destinations.
Further, travel and tourismproducts are classi?ed as luxury goods by most and thus depend
on travelers’ economic circumstances and not just the marketing efforts of tourism boards.
The economy’s impact on Jamaican tourism and subsequent market demand represent a
factor in any decisions made based on the results of this study.
Discussion of ?ndings and implications
This study assesses the success, to date, of the soft goals of Jamaica’s ten-year master plan
for tourism development. To put the results of this study in perspective, it is important to
recognize where the country is in terms of meeting the master plan’s hard objectives. Data
pertaining to the plan’s hard targets indicate that realized annual growth rates are less than
the goal growth rates established in 2000. According to the Annual Travel Statistics report
(Jamaica Tourist Board, 2008), since 2000 there has been an increase in actual stop-over
arrivals, cruise passengers, visitor expenditures, and room stock at the annual rate of 4.1,
4.3, 6.2, and 1.3 percent, respectively. Goal growth rates for these measures were set at 5.5,
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 149
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
10, 8.4, and 4 percent, respectively. Given this slower than projected progress and current
economic conditions, it may be dif?cult to achieve the plan’s objectives by 2010.
In contrast, the ?ndings of this study show quite positive perceptions of both the directions
taken by the tourism industry and the general progress that has been made. Respondents’
expectations that the goals will not be met by 2010 is more likely related to overly optimistic
goals and/or intervening economic and political disruptions than to poor implementation.
However, two goals in particular stand out as problems. The goals to become more inclusive
of the entire citizenry and more environmentally sustainable are clearly unmet based on the
results of this survey.
The goals of the plan are important to Jamaican professionals, albeit some are perceived as
being more important than others. Even though a ten-year plan should be ambitious, the
Ministry of Industry and Tourism could bene?t from prioritizing the plan’s goals. Promoting
the plan and its subsequent successes internally could bene?t the country, since the plan’s
stated goals and its application of community development/ inclusiveness and
environmental sustainability appear to be inconsistent. Communicating realistic
expectations and outcomes to the various stakeholders is an important part of a
successful plan.
Community development/inclusiveness
According to Simmons (1994), local residents are the nucleus of the product offered to
tourists; their traditions are the source upon which the industry is developed and they
participate in its delivery, directly and indirectly (Murphy, 1983). Without communication
between residents, the business sector and other entities, there may be a lack of cohesion
and/or shared vision, which can lead to negative outcomes such as poor product
distinctiveness, tourism haters (Madrigal, 1994) and inconsistent perceptions of the
economic bene?ts associated with the industry (Ryan and Montgomery, 1994).
While large scale local involvement may be an idealistic dream (Murphy, 1985, p. 171),
numerous studies suggest that stakeholder participation is an important component in
sustainable tourism development (c.f. Connell, 1997; Jamal and Getz, 1995; Murphy, 1985;
Cook, 1982). Factors such as lack of education, inexperience, and incompatible interests
can limit involvement (Taylor, 1995; Okazaki, 2008), but cooperation and participation by and
among stakeholder groups will optimize outcomes since local stakeholders in?uence
implementation of development plans (Felstead, 2000; Pearce, 1994; Murphy, 1985; Bovy,
1982). Often, such participation calls for redistribution of power (Arnstein, 1969); such
redistribution may also be dif?cult to initiate and maintain (Getz and Jamal, 1994). Additional
resources are generally necessary to ensure that individuals have the ability and skills to
become involved (Gray, 1985). Worse still, relevant stakeholders may not even know where
to begin when they are contemplating participation (Okazaki, 2008, p. 512; Joppe, 1996).
According to Arnstein (1969), to create a successful participatory culture non-participation
must evolve to tokenism and, ?nally, to degrees of citizen power. Because the power
redistribution takes place over time and in stages, local stakeholders must learn to
understand situations and how to manage them. Applying the ladder concept to the
Jamaican tourism industry demonstrates that tourist communities and residents, rather than
governments and multinational corporations, could be involved in – and ultimately
responsible for – tourism planning and implementation (Timothy, 2007), despite the
traditional economic and social disparity among residents.
Building consensus (Blank, 1989) and minimizing problems during implementation (Gray,
1989), requires involvement among key stakeholders in community destination planning
throughout the process (Haywood, 1988; Murphy, 1983). Simply acknowledging that groups
are interdependent and need to collaborate are insuf?cient actions; methods to secure and
facilitate stakeholder involvement (Jamal and Getz, 1995) may also be needed. According
to Gray (1989, p. 71), an entity with legitimate and expert power (a government body or one
with the mandate to exercise control) might be designated to induce participation and help
resolve disputes. Ultimately, however, governments (and mandates) change over time.
PAGE 150
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Therefore, local residents and stakeholders must be involved in destination planning and
development to ensure smooth transitions and help adjust to other forces impacting the
tourism system (Jamal and Getz, 1995, p. 199).
Environmental sustainability
In an increasingly competitive marketplace, a key component of tourism strategy (Bramwell
and Lane, 1993) is sustainability. This is particularly critical for countries such as Jamaica,
whose economies depend upon tourism(Munt, 1992; Cater, 1993). The protected resources
also need to be considered within the greater context of market demand and
competitiveness because a sustainable competitive position requires that changes in the
marketplace and economy must be addressed (Hassan, 2000; Porter, 1990); reduced
tourism revenues actually can lead to increased poverty and/or damage to the environment
(English Tourist Board, 1991). As new destinations emerge, existing locations may realize
fewer repeat customers and a slowdown in business development, which can lead to
negative community attitudes (Butler, 1980). From a branding perspective, tourists’
evaluations of the destination are affected by a consistent, distinguishable and positive
image, but image is also important to residents’ evaluations since facilitating economic
growth may make the destination a better place to live (Park and Petrick, 2006).
Although Brand Jamaica traditionally emphasized sea, sun and sand, competition from
other nations continues to increase, many of these competitors offer and promote these
same attributes. Similarity is a signi?cant problem for mature tourist destinations, because
lack of differentiation can lead to declining pro?t margins, poor quality, negative image, and,
ultimately, environmental degradation (Sedmak and Mihalic, 2008) as new and more
appealing destinations enter the marketplace. Tourists’ preferences also change over time;
their penchant for traditional seaside vacations is being augmented, if not supplanted, by a
desire to visit destinations that offer culturally-rich experiences in
environmentally-responsible locations (Carey et al., 1997). In the future, seaside
destinations that offer unique and authentic features, in locations where resources are
protected, may enjoy a competitive advantage over their rivals (Sedmak and Mihalic, 2008).
Conclusion
Survey respondents view the success of the plan less positively than they perceive the plan
itself. According to Ferrell and Hartline (2008, p. 311), many ?rms are quite good at devising
strategic marketing plans; however, they are often unprepared to cope with the realities of
implementation. Today’s economy and increased competition are affecting tourist
destinations, worldwide. In Jamaica, the industry may also be impacted by perceptions of
public sector corruption and lack of accountability (Gager, 2001; Thame, 2007), a highly
centralized government coupled with weak local government institutions (Forbes, 1985, p. 4;
Grif?th, 2001), and a low level of participation by local communities (Economic Commission
for Latin America and the Caribbean, 2003, p. 201).
From a competitive standpoint, Jamaica’s tourism industry offers features that are distinctive
and desirable. The master plan’s focus on infrastructure is laudable, successfully providing
access to unique locations and historical sites. Protecting and preserving the environment,
an important component of a destination’s offerings, is being addressed through the
building of sewage systems and upgrading of water systems. Yet, these efforts may not
necessarily be perceived as a major achievement in terms of environmentally sustainable
tourism.
The JTB’s efforts to communicate the destination’s offerings to target markets should also be
favorably received and assist in the island’s effort to expand beyond the traditional US
market. Public-private partnerships, such as the government’s recent contracts with airlines
and Spanish resort owners, provide funding for future development. More directly related to
the master plan’s hard goals, they provide an opportunity to diversity Jamaica’s tourism
markets.
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 151
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
While strategists should include local stakeholders in the planning and development
process, results of the study indicate failure to do so. Anecdotally, claims have been made
that Jamaica’s resort boards are being marginalized and politicized, and individuals who
have been appointed by the Minister of Tourism are making decisions. Funds earmarked for
tourism development (i.e. the Tourism Enhancement Fund) are also being spent without
input from local stakeholders (Silvera, 2009).
Initiating and maintaining communication and encouraging af?liation between tourism
industry stakeholders is, at best, challenging. Individuals may perceive they are not able or
allowed to make decisions. Others may be unwilling to participate, permitting – or even
preferring that – someone else be responsible for policy and management. However, over
time, especially when conditions become unstable and/or growth falters, the divergence of
goals and opinions becomes increasingly palpable, underscoring the need for an approach
that consistently emphasizes stakeholder input. Even though a community-based approach
is a vital component in sustainable tourism ?nancial support from government and/or private
resources (e.g. to offer skills training and create internal marketing campaigns) is necessary
to enhance awareness of and involvement in development efforts. According to a participant
in the current study:
Cultural and eco-tourism provide the best avenues to develop a strong, vibrant and sustainable
competitive tourism product for Jamaica. The master plan is a valuable blueprint, but until it is
communicated to all stakeholders and receives buy in at the community level it will remain a
fantastic blueprint. It is time for the government to get going.
References
Arnstein, S. (1969), ‘‘A ladder of citizen participation’’, Journal of the American Institute of Planners,
Vol. 35 No. 4, pp. 216-24.
Blank, U. (1989), The Community Tourism Imperative: The Necessity, the Opportunities, its Potential,
Venture Publishing, State College, PA.
Bovy, M. (1982), ‘‘New concepts in planning for tourism and recreation’’, Tourism Planning, Vol. 3 No. 4,
pp. 308-13.
Bowe, R. (2005), ‘‘Red Stripe, yellow curry and green hotels’’, E Magazine, January/February, pp. 52-3.
Bramwell, B. and Lane, B. (1993), ‘‘Sustainable tourism: an evolving global approach’’, Journal of
Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 1, pp. 1-5.
Butler, R. (1980), ‘‘The concept of tourist-area cycle of evolution: implications for management of
resources’’, The Canadian Geographer, Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 5-12.
Carey, S., Gountas, Y. and Gilbert, D. (1997), ‘‘Tour operators and destination sustainability’’, Tourism
Management, Vol. 18, pp. 425-31.
Cater, E. (1993), ‘‘Ecotourismin the third world: problems for sustainable tourismdevelopment’’, Tourism
Management, Vol. 14, pp. 85-90.
CIA World Fact Book (2008), ‘‘CIA – The Word Factbook – Jamaica’’, p. 1.
Connell, D. (1997), ‘‘Participatory development: an approach sensitive to class and gender’’,
Development in Practice, Vol. 3, pp. 248-59.
Cook, K. (1982), ‘‘Guidelines for socially appropriate tourism development in British Columbia’’, Journal
of Travel Research, Vol. 21, pp. 22-8.
Cross, B. (2006), ‘‘In?nite rehearsal of culture in St. Catherine, Jamaica: Heritage as tourist product,
implications for Caribbean pedagogy’’, Pedagogy, Culture and Society, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 315-27.
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (2003), available at: www.eclac.org/
publicaciones/xml/9/13229/lcarg749-11-Chapter08.pdf (accessed 10 January 2009).
English Tourist Board (1991), The Future of England’s Smaller Seaside Resorts: Summary Report, ETB,
London.
PAGE 152
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Felstead, M. (2000), Master Plan for Community-Based Eco-Tourismin Ulgan Bay, Palawan, Republic of
the Philippines, UNESCO-UNDP-PPC, Puerto Princesa City.
Ferrell, O. and Hartline, M. (2008), Marketing Strategy, Thomson Southwestern, Mason, OH.
Forbes, J. (1985), Jamaica: Managing Political and Economic Change, American Enterprise Institute for
Public Policy Research, Washington, DC.
Gager, W. (2001), ‘ ‘Jamaica: struggles with accountability’ ’, Commonwealth Workshop on
Accountability, Scrutiny, and Oversight, Australia, May 23-25.
Getz, D. and Jamal, T. (1994), ‘‘The environment-community symbiosis: a case of collaborative tourism
planning’’, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 2 No. 3, pp. 152-73.
Government of Jamaica (2000), ‘‘Ministry of Industry and Tourism Master Plan’’, available at: http://
tourism.gov.jm/master_plan/executive_summary.html (accessed 9 November 2008).
Gray, B. (1985), ‘‘Conditions facilitating interorganizational collaboration’’, Human Relations, Vol. 38
No. 10, pp. 911-36.
Gray, B. (1989), Collaborating: Finding Common Ground for Multiparty Problems, Jossey-Bass, San
Francisco, CA.
Grif?th, I. (2001), ‘‘Democracy and governance in Jamaica: an assessment’’, Management Systems
International and United States Agency for International Development Report, February 22.
Harriott, A. (2007), ‘‘Risk perceptions and fear of criminal victimization among visitors to Jamaica:
bringing perceptions in line with reality’’, Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, Vol. 2/3, pp. 93-108.
Hassan, S. (2000), ‘‘Determinants of market competitiveness in an environmentally sustainable tourism
industry’’, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 35, pp. 239-45.
Haywood, M. (1988), ‘‘Responsible and responsive planning in the community’’, Tourism Management,
Vol. 9, pp. 105-18.
Jaffe, E. and Nebenzahl, I. (2006), National Image and Competitive Advantage: The Theory and Practice
of Place Branding, 2nd ed., Narayana, Gylling.
Jamaica Information Service (2009a), ‘‘Four per cent growth in tourist arrivals in 2008’’, press release,
January 13.
Jamaica Information Service (2009b), ‘‘Tourismmarketing approaches being optimized’’, press release,
January 16.
Jamaica Tourist Board (2008), ‘‘Annual Travel Statistics 2008’’, available at: www.jtbonline.org/statistics
(accessed 15 November 2008).
Jamaica Tourist Board (2009a), available at: www.visitjamaica.com (accessed 16 January 2009).
Jamaica Tourist Board (2009b), available at: www.visitjamaica.com/about-jamaica/facts-economy-
mainpage.aspx (accessed 16 January 2009).
Jamal, T. and Getz, D. (1995), ‘‘Collaboration theory and community tourism planning’’, Annals of
Tourism Research, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 186-204.
Joppe, M. (1996), ‘‘Sustainable community tourism development revisited’’, Tourism Management,
Vol. 17 No. 7, pp. 475-9.
Kleinhans, C. (2007), ‘‘Interview with Basil Smith, Director of Tourism for the Jamaica Tourist Board’’,
available at: www.jamaicans.com/articles/primetinterviews/Basilsmithinterview (accessed 14 January
2009).
McNeill, W. (2008), ‘‘Sectoral debate 2008 by opposition spokesperson on tourism’’, June 5, available at:
www.pnpjamaica.org (accessed 14 January 2009).
Madrigal, R. (1994), ‘‘Residents’ perceptions and the role of government’’, Annals of Tourism Research,
Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 86-102.
Manning, G. (2006a), ‘‘Too many rooms! – hotel growth pressuring infrastructure’’, Jamaica Gleaner,
September 16, available at: www.jamaicagleaner.com/gleaner/20060917/lead/lead1.html (accessed
14 January 2009).
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 153
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Manning, G. (2006b), ‘‘Jamaica not ready for massive resort development – PIOJ’’, Jamaica Gleaner,
September 17, available at: www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20070225/lead/lead1.html (accessed
17 January 2009).
Manning, G. (2008a), ‘‘St Ann is the poorest parish – Portland, St Thomas trail’’, Jamaica Gleaner,
August 3, available at: www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080803/lead/lead3.html (accessed
17 January 2009).
Manning, G. (2008b), ‘‘Government to review tourism master plan – environmentalists want policy with
teeth’’, April 27, available at: www.jamaicagleaner.com/gleaner/20080427/lead/lead5.html (accessed
9 November 2008).
Marino, J. (2008), ‘‘Caribbean hotel bookings plunge as economy sags’’, Reuters, November 8,
available at: www.reuters.com/article/companyNewsAndPR/ idUSN0740948120081107 (accessed
8 November 2008).
Munt, I. (1992), ‘‘A great escape?’’, Town and Country Planning, July/August, pp. 212-4.
Murphy, P. (1983), ‘‘Perceptions and attitudes of decision making groups in tourism centers’’, Journal of
Travel Research, Vol. 21, pp. 8-12.
Murphy, P. (1985), Tourism: A Community Approach, Methuen, New York, NY.
Myers, G. (2007), ‘‘Tourism pros feel the urgency to market their product better’’, Travel Weekly, Vol. 66
No. 26, p. 60.
Of?ce of the Prime Minister (2008), ‘‘Tourism arrivals and remittances still looking positive . . . says PM’’,
Jamaica Information Service, October 31, available at: www.jis.gov.jm/of?cepm/html/
20081031t1000000500 (accessed 8 November 2008).
Okazaki, E. (2008), ‘‘A community-based tourismmodel: its conception and use’’, Journal of Sustainable
Tourism, Vol. 16 No. 5, pp. 511-29.
Park, S. and Petrick, J. (2006), ‘‘Destinations’ perspectives of branding’’, Annals of Tourism Research,
Vol. 33 No. 1, pp. 262-5.
Pearce, P. (1994), ‘‘Tourist-resident impact: examples and emerging solutions’’, in Theobald, W.F. (Ed.),
Global Tourism: The Next Decade, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, pp. 103-23.
Porter, M. (1990), The Competitive Advantage of Nations, Macmillan, London.
Ryan, C. and Montgomery, D. (1994), ‘‘The attitudes of Bakewell residents to tourism and issues in
community responsive tourism’’, Tourism Management, Vol. 15 No. 5, pp. 35-369.
Sedmak, G. and Mihalic, T. (2008), ‘‘Authenticity in mature seaside resorts’’, Annals of Tourism
Research, Vol. 35 No. 4, pp. 1007-31.
Silvera, J. (2007), ‘‘Spring breakers shun Jamaica’’, Jamaica Gleaner, February 25, available at: www.
jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20070225/lead/lead1.html (accessed November 2008).
Silvera, J. (2008a), ‘‘Tourism-ad blitz: JTB pulling out all the stops to combat decline in North American
tourist arrivals’’, The Sunday Gleaner, Vol. 69 No. 50, pp. A1-A3.
Silvera, J. (2008b), ‘‘Sandals lays off 650’’, The Saturday Gleaner, Vol. 174 No. 298, pp. A1-A3.
Silvera, J. (2008c), ‘‘Jamaica Tourist Board execs quit – Another government board loses its directors’’,
Jamaica Gleaner, November 18, available at: www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20081118/lead/lead1.
html (accessed 14 January 2009).
Silvera, J. (2009), ‘‘JTB’s US$500,000 sponsorship causes controversy’’, Jamaica Gleaner, January 8,
available at: www.jamaicagleaner.com/gleaner/20090108/ent/ent1.html (accessed 10 January 2009).
Simmons, D. (1994), ‘‘Community participation in tourismplanning’’, TourismManagement, Vol. 15 No. 2,
pp. 98-108.
Springer, B. (2004), ‘‘Figures con?rm tourism’s importance to Carib. econ.’’, The New York Amsterdam
News, p. 14, June 17-24.
Srikatanyoo, N. and Gnoth, J. (2002), ‘‘Country image and international tertiary education’’, Journal of
Brand Management, Vol. 10, pp. 139-48.
PAGE 154
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Taylor, G. (1995), ‘‘The community approach: does it really work?’’, Tourism Management, Vol. 16 No. 7,
pp. 487-9.
Thame, C. (2007), ‘‘What are they promising?’’, Jamaica Observer, August 15, available at: www.
jamaicaobserver.com/magazines/Business/html/20070814T220000-0500_126279_OBS_WHAT_ARE_
THEY_PROMISING_.asp (accessed 10 January 2009).
Thomas-Hope, E. and Jardine-Comrie, A. (2007), ‘‘Valuation of environmental resources for tourism in
small island developing states: implications for planning in Jamaica’’, International Development
Planning Review, Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 92-112.
Timothy, D. (2007), ‘‘Empowerment and stakeholder participation in tourism destination communities’’,
in Church, A. and Coles, T. (Eds), Tourism, Power and Space, Routledge, London, pp. 199-216.
Travelin’ Light (2008), ‘‘Jamaica Tourist Board reappointed’’, December 2, available at: www.
travelinglight.professionaltravelguide.com/2008/12/jamaica-tourist-board-reappointed.html (accessed
14 January 2009).
Williams, D.A. (2007), ‘‘Competitiveness of small enterprises: insights from a developing economy’’,
The Round Table, Vol. 96 No. 390, pp. 347-63.
Williams, D.A. and Deslandes, D. (2008), ‘‘Motivation for service sector foreign direct investments in
emerging economies: insights from the tourism industry in Jamaica’’, Round Table, Vol. 97 No. 396,
pp. 419-37.
World Travel and Tourism Council (2008), ‘‘WTTC TSA 2008 – Jamaica’’, available at: www.tourismroi.
com/InteriorTemplate.aspx?id ¼ 26532 (accessed 16 January 2009).
Corresponding author
Julie Z. Sneath can be contacted at: [email protected]
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 155
To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected]
Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
This article has been cited by:
1. Janaina de Moura Engracia Giraldi. 2016. Evaluation of the impact of Brazil's sustainability on the behavioral intentions of
stakeholders toward the country. Evaluation and Program Planning 54, 135-143. [CrossRef]
2. Sarfaraz Hashemkhani Zolfani, Maedeh Sedaghat, Reza Maknoon, Edmundas Kazimieras Zavadskas. 2015. Sustainable
tourism: a comprehensive literature review on frameworks and applications. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja 28,
1-30. [CrossRef]
3. Manuel Calvo Trias, David Javaloyas Molina, Daniel Albero Santacreu, Jaume García Rosselló. 2014. Enhancing “Places”
Through Archaeological Heritage in Sun, Sand, and Sea Touristic Coastal Areas: A Case Study From Mallorca (Spain). The
Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 9, 341-363. [CrossRef]
4. Ihab Hanna Salman Sawalha, Luai Eid Jraisat, Kamal A.M. Al?Qudah. 2013. Crisis and disaster management in Jordanian
hotels: practices and cultural considerations. Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 22:3, 210-228.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
5. Karen R. Johnson, Kenneth R. Bartlett. 2013. The role of tourism in national human resource development: a Jamaican
perspective. Human Resource Development International 16, 205-219. [CrossRef]
6. Giacomo Del ChiappaCommunity Integration 243-263. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] [PDF]
7. Iolanda BarbeitosReferences 347-399. [Citation] [Enhanced Abstract] [PDF] [PDF]
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
doc_554490734.pdf
The study aims to examine Jamaican managers’ perceptions of the ten-year master plan
(2000) for tourism sustainability and its effectiveness in achieving inclusive, community-based
development and growth. The research seeks to determine how much progress has been made and
discusses implications for the Jamaican tourism industry.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Developing sustainable tourism: managers' assessment of Jamaica's ten-year master plan
Pamela A. Kennett-Hensel J ulie Z. Sneath Paul J . Hensel
Article information:
To cite this document:
Pamela A. Kennett-Hensel J ulie Z. Sneath Paul J . Hensel, (2010),"Developing sustainable tourism: managers' assessment of J amaica's
ten-year master plan", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 4 Iss 2 pp. 143 - 155
Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17506181011045217
Downloaded on: 24 January 2016, At: 22:10 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 69 other documents.
To copy this document: [email protected]
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 1738 times since 2010*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
Carmen Padin, (2012),"A sustainable tourism planning model: components and relationships", European Business Review, Vol. 24 Iss 6 pp.
510-518http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09555341211270528
Erick T. Byrd, (2007),"Stakeholders in sustainable tourism development and their roles: applying stakeholder theory to sustainable tourism
development", Tourism Review, Vol. 62 Iss 2 pp. 6-13http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/16605370780000309
Lynn C. Harrison, Chandana J ayawardena, Anthony Clayton, (2003),"Sustainable tourism development in the Caribbean:
practical challenges", International J ournal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 15 Iss 5 pp. 294-298 http://
dx.doi.org/10.1108/09596110310482227
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:115632 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service information about
how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/
authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of more than
290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional
customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and
also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Developing sustainable tourism:
managers’ assessment of Jamaica’s
ten-year master plan
Pamela A. Kennett-Hensel, Julie Z. Sneath and Paul J. Hensel
Abstract
Purpose – The study aims to examine Jamaican managers’ perceptions of the ten-year master plan
(2000) for tourism sustainability and its effectiveness in achieving inclusive, community-based
development and growth. The research seeks to determine how much progress has been made and
discusses implications for the Jamaican tourism industry.
Design/methodology/approach – An online survey containing 16 open- and close-ended questions
was sent to 540 Jamaican managers and executives; 99 surveys were completed and used for analysis.
Findings – The ?ndings indicate Jamaica’s ten-year master plan has the correct focus. The goals of the
plan are viewed as important. Goals related to heritage-based tourism and infrastructure improvements
and accessibility are perceived as successfully developed. Weaknesses appear in the implementation
and development of community-based, inclusive tourism and environmentally sustainable tourism.
Some signi?cant differences between those employed in tourism/hospitality and those employed in
other industries are discussed.
Research limitations/implications – The results may not be generalizable across all socio-economic
strata since survey participants are limited to educated business professionals. However, their inclusion
– or lack thereof – in decisions that could help achieve the plan’s goals, suggests de?ciencies in
implementation that may be valid across social strata and destinations.
Originality/value – This study examines managers’ assessments of hard and soft targets for a
sustainable tourism industry. Using a community-based approach to planning and development, the
researchers explore opportunities to enhance tourism growth and sustainability.
Keywords Tourism, Strategic planning, Community planning, Brands, Jamaica
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
In its latest US$3 million promotional campaign, the Jamaica Tourist Board (JTB) touts
‘‘Jamaica – Once you go, you know’’ (Jamaica Tourist Board, 2009a; Silvera, 2008a). In
direct contrast to stereotypes of Jamaica’s ‘‘nuh watch nutten’’ or ‘‘don’t worry’’ attitude, the
island nation is very focused on its tourism industry given the pivotal role in the economy.
Tourism is one of the top two economic sectors for Jamaica, with bauxite mining being the
other top industry (Jamaica Tourist Board, 2009b; CIA World Fact Book, 2008). The industry
contributes approximately 25 percent of Jamaica’s gross national product (Bowe, 2005) and
31 percent (or US$3.415 million) to its gross domestic product, and employs over 290,000
individuals (27.1 percent of the island workforce), ranking Jamaica 16th out of 176 countries
in tourism’s relative contribution to the nation’s economy (World Travel and Tourism Council,
2008).
Despite 2008 being a dif?cult year (Jamaica Information Service, 2009a), according to
Minister of Tourism Edmund Bartlett tourism ?gures are encouraging with reports that over
1.75 million individuals visited Jamaica in 2008, representing an increase of 63,000 from the
previous year. Despite a setback due to Hurricane Dean in August 2007 (CIA World Fact
DOI 10.1108/17506181011045217 VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010, pp. 143-155, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 143
Pamela A. Kennett-Hensel
is based at the University of
New Orleans, New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA.
Julie Z. Sneath is based at
the University of South
Alabama, Mobile, Alabama,
USA. Paul J. Hensel is
based at the University of
New Orleans, New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA.
Received January 2009
Revised June 2009
Accepted July 2009
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Book, 2008), these ?gures represent a substantial increase over the past decade when the
number of tourists visiting Jamaica in 2000 has been estimated at 1.323 million (Government
of Jamaica, 2000).
However, cries of ‘‘nuten nah gwaan’’ or ‘‘nothing is happening’’ can be heard fromconcerned
individuals. For instance, the Spring Break market shows signi?cant declines (Silvera, 2007)
and Sandals Resorts International reduced its workforce by 7.5 percent (Silvera, 2008b). Most
daunting is that the winter 2009 tourism season projection is a 30 percent decline due to
worsening economic conditions in Jamaica’s target tourism markets (Silvera, 2008a) at the
same time that the number of hotel rooms on the island are increasing (Manning, 2006a).
These projections echo the United Nations World Tourism Organization’s World Tourism
Barometer that predicts the rapid slowdown of international tourism growth (Silvera, 2008c, p.
1), due to rising oil prices and deteriorating economic conditions. Momentary upheaval has
also occurred within the Jamaica Tourist Board with ?ve members resigning on November 17,
2008 (Silvera, 2008c) and then being reinstated two weeks later (Travelin’ Light, 2008).
These dire predictions for the near future have resulted in a ?urry of activity spearheaded by
the Minister of Tourism and a renewed focus on the government’s ten-year master plan for
tourism – nearly nine years after its inception. This study examines Jamaican managers’
assessment of the island’s tourismindustry with particular focus on the ten-year master plan.
First, a discussion of issues particular to Jamaican tourism is presented followed by an
overview of the master plan. Results of an online survey of Jamaican managers (n ¼ 99) who
have shared their opinions of the plan, brand Jamaica, and Jamaican tourism, in general, are
highlighted along with limitations of this study. Lastly, a discussion of these ?ndings and
implications for the tourism sector are presented.
Issues in Jamaican tourism
Several important issues need consideration when discussing Jamaican tourism. First,
historically, Jamaican tourism marketing depends heavily on the notion of sand, sun and fun
delivered in resort-like settings. Much of the infrastructure for this industry ties into foreign
direct investment (FDI), the level of which in Jamaica has been deemed unprecedented
(Williams and Deslandes, 2008, p. 419). FDI is a natural result of the emphasis that the
government places on mass tourism, with a high spatial concentration on the coastal zones
(Thomas-Hope and Jardine-Comrie, 2007, p. 93). This segment of the industry is saturated
and, consequently, extremely competitive (Williams and Deslandes, 2008). Still, foreign
investment, albeit more diversi?ed, continues to enter the market in conjunction with the
government’s Tourism Expansion Project aimed at increasing the number of hotel rooms on
the island by 11,000 rooms by 2010 (Manning, 2006b). While the Caribbean countries
experiencing the highest economic gains have also had the largest investments in tourism
(Thomas-Hope and Jardine-Comrie, 2007; Springer, 2004), pro?ts from this market often
leave the island with foreign investors. This investment does not create local connections
necessary in what is traditionally a low paying industry (Manning, 2008a) and fosters an
unsophisticated entrepreneurial class (Williams, 2007).
While sand, sun and fun is an enticing tourism concept, no differentiation exists from other
Caribbean and/or Latin American destinations. Jamaica’s differentiation relates to Brand
Jamaica, a term in Jamaican culture and one of the strongest tourism brands in the world
(Kleinhans, 2007). Jamaica conjures up many positive associations, such as music
(especially Bob Marley and reggae), jerk seasoning, gorgeous and diverse scenery, and
relaxed, friendly (‘‘no worries, mon!’’) people. The marketing messages of Jamaican tourism
entities reinforce these images. However, for some individuals, Jamaica conjures up
negative associations such as poverty, drugs, and crime. Harriott (2007) ?nds visitors to the
nation view crime against tourists as being a much greater problem than statistics suggest.
Actual data include only 0.004 percent of 2003 reports by visitors of being criminally
victimized – in comparison to 1.2 percent of the Jamaican population – 300 times lower than
in the resident population (Harriott, 2007). Nevertheless, the persistent problem of high
unemployment (10.2 percent in 2007) fuels a crime and drug trade problem (CIAWorld Fact
Book, 2008), which impacts potential tourists’ perceptions.
PAGE 144
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Thirdly, the Jamaican tourism industry acknowledges its need to diversify its target market.
At one point the US market accounted for nearly 80 percent of the visitors (Kleinhans, 2007).
In 2008, 65 percent of visitors were from the US (Jamaica Information Service, 2009a).
Tourism executives speak of the danger of relying on one market if something catastrophic
such as 9/11 happens within that segment (Kleinhans, 2007; Jamaica Information Service,
2009b) and they need to explore new market opportunities in a saturated Caribbean market.
With diversi?cation of foreign direct investment from countries such as Spain, emerging
opportunities for new target tourist markets exist. Jamaica tourism marketing efforts are
being expanded to target South American and Asian markets, emphasizing the local and
visiting friends and relatives markets (Kleinhans, 2007; Jamaica Information Service,
2009b).
Lastly, those interested in environment and social equity argue that the Jamaican
infrastructure is pushed to a breaking point. Environmentalists contend that large resort
developments and global warming make coastal regions increasingly vulnerable (Manning,
2008b). Others argue that the Jamaican infrastructure is improving as a result of these
projects, citing upgrades in roadways, airports, water supplies, and sewage systems
(McNeill, 2008). A larger socio-economic debate is whether the Jamaican people are better
off as a result of tourism, or if it merely accentuates the gap between the haves and have nots
(Cross, 2006).
Jamaica’s ten-year master plan
In 2000, the Jamaican Ministry of Industry and Tourism developed a ten-year master plan
that focuses on expanding the island’s tourism market by putting the industry on a more
sustainable and bene?cial path. All stakeholders deem the success of this plan to be critical
to Jamaica’s economic well being.
This plan presents ?ve main goals:
1. Growth based on a sustainable Jamaican heritage market position.
2. Enhancing visitor experience by shoring up the tourism infrastructure to broaden the
attraction offerings.
3. Community based development with the purpose of getting citizens involved in bottomup
tourism planning.
4. An inclusive industry in which all citizens participate and bene?t.
5. Environmental sustainability to preserve the island’s natural beauty (Government of
Jamaica, 2000).
Differentiation through developing and expanding Jamaican tourism into nontraditional
areas, such as eco- and cultural tourismis evident throughout the plan (Myers, 2007; Marino,
2008).
Ultimately, success or failure of this very ambitious plan is measurable by examining both
hard and soft targets. Baseline objectives are set for hard indicators such as visitor
expenditure (from 1.3 million in 2000 to US$3 billion in 2010) and direct employment (from
75,000 employed in 2000 to 130,000 employed by 2010) (Government of Jamaica, 2000).
While reports and updates for economic indicators are made on a regular basis (Of?ce of the
Prime Minister, 2008), indicators that assess ful?llment of the government’s soft goals are
more subjective in nature and are not comprehensively assessed. These goals address
many of the critical issues outlined in the previous section, including whether or not the
industry is more inclusive, better embraces Jamaican cultural positioning by capitalizing on
positive Brand Jamaica associations, and preserves the natural environment.
Nearly nine years into the plan, questions are being raised about the master plan’s success,
to date, and the relevance of a plan developed in 2000 given today’s market dynamics
(Manning, 2008b; McNeill, 2008). How much progress has been made? Has the Ministry
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 145
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
succeeded in achieving these objectives? Have other factors impacted the island’s ability to
realize the plan’s goals?
Method
To explore these multi-faceted and far reaching issues for Jamaica and its people, a survey
is developed containing sixteen questions comprised of two distinct sections. First,
respondents are asked nine questions focusing on Jamaican tourism. These questions
capture the following information:
B perceptions relative to the master plan’s goals;
B perception of the Jamaica Tourism Board and industry’s effectiveness in achieving these
goals;
B image of the country, as a brand (Jaffe and Nebenzahl, 2006; Srikatanyoo and Gnoth,
2002), and in comparison to other Caribbean travel destinations;
B associations with Brand Jamaica; and
B additional thoughts regarding attitudes and perceptions of the Master Plan and Jamaican
tourism, in general.
The remaining seven questions are demographic and/or classi?catory in nature, to help
examine possible differences among various groups of respondents.
Sample and sample statistics
The survey is administered via email using online survey software to 540 Jamaican
managers and executives who, within the past 12 years, completed (n ¼ 491) or are
currently enrolled in (n ¼ 49) an Executive MBA program in Kingston, Jamaica. This
population is not only accessible to the researchers; but appropriate because its members
are Jamaican professionals who depend on the success of tourism and tourism-related
industries in this visitor-dependent nation. Among the most educated and business
knowledgeable on the island, their perceptions of and participation in tourism growth and
sustainability are important to the master plan’s success. The sample received an e-mail
highlighting the purpose of the study and containing a link to the survey. A reminder e-mail
was sent approximately two weeks later. A total of 100 individuals participated in the survey.
One survey was discarded for non-response resulting in a usable sample of 99 respondents
(18.3 percent response rate).
The typical respondent currently resides in Jamaica (98.9 percent), is not self-employed
(95.7 percent), and is female (70.2 percent). The modal age group is the 30-39 age range
(42.6 percent), followed by those aged 40-49 (25.5 percent). Respondents report working in
a wide range of industries, with the top three industries being the government (22.3 percent),
banking/?nancial services (18.1 percent), and manufacturing (12.8 percent). Only 4.3
percent work directly in tourism/hospitality. When asked to describe their managerial level,
34.0 percent classify themselves as middle management followed by upper management
(19.1 percent), lower management (19.1 percent) and executive (11.7 percent).
Results
Assessment of the master plan’s importance
Overall, Jamaican managers support the master plan’s goals for sustainable development.
Between 77 and 83 percent of respondents agree or strongly agree that the plan’s goals are
important to the growth of Jamaica tourism. However, they perceive that some goals are
more important than others. Using a four-point scale (1 ¼ very unimportant and 4 ¼ very
important), respondents indicate that the development of Jamaica’s heritage (x ¼ 3.37),
improved infrastructure (x ¼ 3.36) and preserving the environment (x ¼ 3.35) are the three
most important goals, and they characterize inclusiveness and community-based
development as slightly less important, with means of 3.27 and 3.21, respectively.
PAGE 146
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Respondents also rank order these goals frommost to least important, with results that mirror
those of the previous question. Consistency between these two measures indicates reliable
and valid indicators of the priority of the ?ve goals.
Assessment of the master plan’s outcomes
Respondents evaluated outcomes of the master plan by indicating the extent to which they
agreed or disagreed with ?ve goal-related statements using a ?ve-point Likert scale
(1 ¼ strongly disagree and 5 ¼ strongly agree). Results show that improved infrastructure
enhancing visitor experience (x ¼ 3.98) and focusing on Jamaica’s heritage to attract more
visitors (x ¼ 3.37) secure the highest levels of agreement. However, less agreement occurs
for statements that citizens are more involved in tourism planning (x ¼ 3.10), tourism is more
concerned with the environment (x ¼ 2.92), or more inclusive and bene?cial to all Jamaicans
(x ¼ 2.76). The mean response for inclusiveness, environmental protection and community
involvement are signi?cantly lower ( p , 0.05) than those for the goals concerning increased
heritage focused visitors or infrastructure improvements.
Respondents were also asked to provide information concerning their perceptions of the
Jamaica Tourist Board’s (JTB) effectiveness and cooperation by the private tourism industry
to promote and accomplish the Master Plan’s goals (Table I). Fewer than 7 percent of survey
participants strongly agree with any of the statements concerning these broader,
over-arching measures of effectiveness. Although respondents agree that the private
tourismindustry cooperates in attempting to achieve the goals and that the JTB is effective in
promoting them, overall there is much less agreement concerning progress made toward
achieving the Master Plan’s goals and the likelihood that they will be met by 2010.
Study participants also evaluated developments in the tourism sector of Jamaica’s economy
over the past decade (Table II). This question intends to assess more generalized
perceptions of changes in Jamaican tourism outside the perspective of the master plan, as
well as provide evidence of internal validity. With the exception of the
infrastructure/accessibility characteristic, which 17 percent of the respondents strongly
agree is improving, only a small percentage of individuals strongly agree with the
statements. Closer examination of the results suggests that most respondents agree
Jamaican tourism is more accessible, culturally focused, heritage focused, and sustainable,
but fewer agree that the industry is more inclusive of all citizens. The mean agreement
response for the inclusiveness statement (x ¼ 2.63) is signi?cantly lower ( p , 0.02) than
every other mean agreement response to this set of questions.
Table I Progress towards accomplishing master plan goals
Strongly
disagree
(1)
Somewhat
disagree
(2)
Neither agree
or disagree
(3)
Somewhat
agree
(4)
Strongly
agree
(5)
Rating
average
The master plan has a number of goals in addition to the ones that are being asked about in this survey. But considering only those goals
that were asked about in the previous questions (heritage, visitor experience, community based development, inclusiveness, and
environmental sustainability), indicate your level of agreement with each of the next four statements
The Jamaica Tourist Board (JTB) has been
effective in promoting the goals set forth in the
master plan 11 19 22 39 7 3.12
The private tourism industry has cooperated in
attempting to achieve the goals set forth in the
master plan 5 11 31 48 3 3.34
Overall, at this time, good progress has been
made toward achieving the goals set forth in the
master plan 6 15 41 29 7 3.16
Likely the goals set forth in the master plan and
addressed in this survey will be met by 2010 12 31 33 20 2 2.68
Note: n ¼ 98
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 147
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
The variables in Table II correspond with those from the ?rst set of questions concerning
progress towards accomplishing the master plan’s goals. There is a signi?cant correlation
between corresponding levels of agreement for similar goals, providing support for internal
validity of the measures. Speci?cally, the correlations between all applicable pairs of
corresponding variables (e.g. more visitors are coming to Jamaica because of its heritage
and the Jamaican tourism industry has become more focused on Jamaica’s heritage) are
signi?cant (r . 0.22; p , 0.05).
Assessment of Brand Jamaica
Given the importance of brand image in competitive strategy, participants answered
questions about their perceptions of Brand Jamaica and its image, relative to other
Caribbean nations. More than half of all respondents indicate that Jamaica’s image, as a
country, is superior to that of other Caribbean nations and another 25 percent believe the
image is about the same. As a travel destination, 69 percent of respondents believe
Jamaica’s image is superior to the image of other Caribbean nations and 27 percent
believe little difference exists. Even more revealing are responses to an open-ended
question that asks respondents to identify thoughts that come to mind upon hearing the
phrase Brand Jamaica. Nearly two-thirds provide words or phrases associated with
Jamaica’s distinctive heritage and culture; reggae music is identi?ed by 27 respondents
and 23 individuals use the words culture, heritage, or history in their response to this
question. The country’s natural resources (beaches, mountains, foliage, and sea) are
mentioned 21 times.
Additional insights into tourism industry
The ?nal question asks respondents to provide additional feedback on the Jamaican
tourism industry. Their comments reinforce other survey results and underscore the
importance of sustainable tourism with an emphasis on cultural heritage and eco-tourism.
For instance:
Jamaica has traditionally been marketed as sun, sea, and sand. Not enough attention has been
paid to that segment of the market that desires something different. Areas to be considered
include health and wellness (through our hot springs and spas), cultural (through our heritage
sites and art galleries), and sports. While the all-inclusive concept has worked, surveys show that
many tourists want to see the real Jamaica that exists outside walls of the properties.
The responses also reveal the lack of progress and communication with respect to the
master plan:
Table II Perceptions of tourism sector developments
n
Strongly
disagree
(1)
Somewhat
disagree
(2)
Neither agree
or disagree
(3)
Somewhat
agree
(4)
Strongly
agree
(5)
Rating
average
Culturally focused* 93 1 19 15 53 5 3.45
Environmentally friendly 92 0 30 20 33 9 3.23
Inclusive of all citizens* 92 10 36 24 22 0 2.63
Focused on Jamaica’s heritage* 92 1 19 17 51 4 3.41
Accessible 92 0 13 13 50 16 3.75
Sustainable 93 5 16 24 40 8 3.32
Culturally focused* 93 1 19 15 53 5 3.45
Environmentally friendly 92 0 30 20 33 9 3.23
Inclusive of all citizens* 92 10 36 24 22 0 2.63
Focused on Jamaica’s heritage* 92 1 19 17 51 4 3.41
Accessible 92 0 13 13 50 16 3.75
Sustainable 93 5 16 24 40 8 3.32
Notes: *Signi?cant differences ( p , 0.05) were found between those who were employed in tourism/hospitality and those working in
other industries; **the rating average for inclusive of all citizens is signi?cantly lower ( p , 0.02) than every other rating average
PAGE 148
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
There needs to be more sensitization/education of the citizens of the importance of tourism to
Jamaica and the importance of this industry to the common person who is not directly connected
to the industry.
There does not appear to be a compelling or overarching sense of partnership between
government and the populace regarding the goals of the master plan.
Of those providing meaningful responses (n ¼ 36) to the question, only three were positive
or in praise of the tourism industry while 33 were critical in some manner.
Differences based on classi?cations
All close-ended questions are examined for differences based on age, gender, managerial
level (lower, middle, and upper level management), and industry of employment. There are
no signi?cant differences ( p , 0.05) for any of the questions with respect to age, gender or
managerial level thus enhancing the generalizability of the ?ndings. Industry of employment
is examined using two approaches. First, differences across four industry classi?cations –
banking/?nancial services, government, manufacturing, other – are examined. These
classi?cations are derived from the three largest represented industries of employment. No
signi?cant differences emerge from these industry classi?cations.
Only four respondents are employed in the tourism/hospitality industry. Despite the small
number working in this focal industry, their responses are interesting in comparison to the
responses of those not working in tourism/hospitality. When examining perceived
importance of master plan’s goals, there are signi?cant differences ( p , 0.05) with
respect to the importance of the following three goals: developing Jamaica’s heritage,
developing an inclusive industry, and emphasizing environmental sustainability. Individuals
working in the industry perceive each of these goals as more important than their
non-tourism/hospitality counterparts with rating averages of 4.00 vs 3.33, 4.00 vs 3.21, and
4.00 vs 3.29, respectively. Further, when examining progress made over the last decade,
those employed in tourism/hospitality report more progress with respect to certain goals –
speci?cally increase in cultural emphasis, inclusiveness of all citizens, and focus on
Jamaica’s heritage (rating averages of 4.00 vs 3.43, 3.50 vs 2.59, and 4.00 vs 3.39,
respectively; p , 0.05). Lastly, when asked about the image of Jamaica as a travel
destination, in comparison to the image of other Caribbean nations, those working in
tourism/hospitality are less positive than those in other industries who report its image as
only being about equal to its direct competitors.
Research limitations
As with any study, this study has several limitations that must be kept in mind when
considering the results and implications. First, the study represents the opinions of one
segment of the Jamaican people. Respondents are educated business professionals. This
group is relatively homogenous in its views enhancing generalizability of the results to
educated business professionals in Jamaica. However, the results may not represent the
wider island population, nor are they necessarily applicable to other Caribbean destinations.
Further, travel and tourismproducts are classi?ed as luxury goods by most and thus depend
on travelers’ economic circumstances and not just the marketing efforts of tourism boards.
The economy’s impact on Jamaican tourism and subsequent market demand represent a
factor in any decisions made based on the results of this study.
Discussion of ?ndings and implications
This study assesses the success, to date, of the soft goals of Jamaica’s ten-year master plan
for tourism development. To put the results of this study in perspective, it is important to
recognize where the country is in terms of meeting the master plan’s hard objectives. Data
pertaining to the plan’s hard targets indicate that realized annual growth rates are less than
the goal growth rates established in 2000. According to the Annual Travel Statistics report
(Jamaica Tourist Board, 2008), since 2000 there has been an increase in actual stop-over
arrivals, cruise passengers, visitor expenditures, and room stock at the annual rate of 4.1,
4.3, 6.2, and 1.3 percent, respectively. Goal growth rates for these measures were set at 5.5,
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 149
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
10, 8.4, and 4 percent, respectively. Given this slower than projected progress and current
economic conditions, it may be dif?cult to achieve the plan’s objectives by 2010.
In contrast, the ?ndings of this study show quite positive perceptions of both the directions
taken by the tourism industry and the general progress that has been made. Respondents’
expectations that the goals will not be met by 2010 is more likely related to overly optimistic
goals and/or intervening economic and political disruptions than to poor implementation.
However, two goals in particular stand out as problems. The goals to become more inclusive
of the entire citizenry and more environmentally sustainable are clearly unmet based on the
results of this survey.
The goals of the plan are important to Jamaican professionals, albeit some are perceived as
being more important than others. Even though a ten-year plan should be ambitious, the
Ministry of Industry and Tourism could bene?t from prioritizing the plan’s goals. Promoting
the plan and its subsequent successes internally could bene?t the country, since the plan’s
stated goals and its application of community development/ inclusiveness and
environmental sustainability appear to be inconsistent. Communicating realistic
expectations and outcomes to the various stakeholders is an important part of a
successful plan.
Community development/inclusiveness
According to Simmons (1994), local residents are the nucleus of the product offered to
tourists; their traditions are the source upon which the industry is developed and they
participate in its delivery, directly and indirectly (Murphy, 1983). Without communication
between residents, the business sector and other entities, there may be a lack of cohesion
and/or shared vision, which can lead to negative outcomes such as poor product
distinctiveness, tourism haters (Madrigal, 1994) and inconsistent perceptions of the
economic bene?ts associated with the industry (Ryan and Montgomery, 1994).
While large scale local involvement may be an idealistic dream (Murphy, 1985, p. 171),
numerous studies suggest that stakeholder participation is an important component in
sustainable tourism development (c.f. Connell, 1997; Jamal and Getz, 1995; Murphy, 1985;
Cook, 1982). Factors such as lack of education, inexperience, and incompatible interests
can limit involvement (Taylor, 1995; Okazaki, 2008), but cooperation and participation by and
among stakeholder groups will optimize outcomes since local stakeholders in?uence
implementation of development plans (Felstead, 2000; Pearce, 1994; Murphy, 1985; Bovy,
1982). Often, such participation calls for redistribution of power (Arnstein, 1969); such
redistribution may also be dif?cult to initiate and maintain (Getz and Jamal, 1994). Additional
resources are generally necessary to ensure that individuals have the ability and skills to
become involved (Gray, 1985). Worse still, relevant stakeholders may not even know where
to begin when they are contemplating participation (Okazaki, 2008, p. 512; Joppe, 1996).
According to Arnstein (1969), to create a successful participatory culture non-participation
must evolve to tokenism and, ?nally, to degrees of citizen power. Because the power
redistribution takes place over time and in stages, local stakeholders must learn to
understand situations and how to manage them. Applying the ladder concept to the
Jamaican tourism industry demonstrates that tourist communities and residents, rather than
governments and multinational corporations, could be involved in – and ultimately
responsible for – tourism planning and implementation (Timothy, 2007), despite the
traditional economic and social disparity among residents.
Building consensus (Blank, 1989) and minimizing problems during implementation (Gray,
1989), requires involvement among key stakeholders in community destination planning
throughout the process (Haywood, 1988; Murphy, 1983). Simply acknowledging that groups
are interdependent and need to collaborate are insuf?cient actions; methods to secure and
facilitate stakeholder involvement (Jamal and Getz, 1995) may also be needed. According
to Gray (1989, p. 71), an entity with legitimate and expert power (a government body or one
with the mandate to exercise control) might be designated to induce participation and help
resolve disputes. Ultimately, however, governments (and mandates) change over time.
PAGE 150
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Therefore, local residents and stakeholders must be involved in destination planning and
development to ensure smooth transitions and help adjust to other forces impacting the
tourism system (Jamal and Getz, 1995, p. 199).
Environmental sustainability
In an increasingly competitive marketplace, a key component of tourism strategy (Bramwell
and Lane, 1993) is sustainability. This is particularly critical for countries such as Jamaica,
whose economies depend upon tourism(Munt, 1992; Cater, 1993). The protected resources
also need to be considered within the greater context of market demand and
competitiveness because a sustainable competitive position requires that changes in the
marketplace and economy must be addressed (Hassan, 2000; Porter, 1990); reduced
tourism revenues actually can lead to increased poverty and/or damage to the environment
(English Tourist Board, 1991). As new destinations emerge, existing locations may realize
fewer repeat customers and a slowdown in business development, which can lead to
negative community attitudes (Butler, 1980). From a branding perspective, tourists’
evaluations of the destination are affected by a consistent, distinguishable and positive
image, but image is also important to residents’ evaluations since facilitating economic
growth may make the destination a better place to live (Park and Petrick, 2006).
Although Brand Jamaica traditionally emphasized sea, sun and sand, competition from
other nations continues to increase, many of these competitors offer and promote these
same attributes. Similarity is a signi?cant problem for mature tourist destinations, because
lack of differentiation can lead to declining pro?t margins, poor quality, negative image, and,
ultimately, environmental degradation (Sedmak and Mihalic, 2008) as new and more
appealing destinations enter the marketplace. Tourists’ preferences also change over time;
their penchant for traditional seaside vacations is being augmented, if not supplanted, by a
desire to visit destinations that offer culturally-rich experiences in
environmentally-responsible locations (Carey et al., 1997). In the future, seaside
destinations that offer unique and authentic features, in locations where resources are
protected, may enjoy a competitive advantage over their rivals (Sedmak and Mihalic, 2008).
Conclusion
Survey respondents view the success of the plan less positively than they perceive the plan
itself. According to Ferrell and Hartline (2008, p. 311), many ?rms are quite good at devising
strategic marketing plans; however, they are often unprepared to cope with the realities of
implementation. Today’s economy and increased competition are affecting tourist
destinations, worldwide. In Jamaica, the industry may also be impacted by perceptions of
public sector corruption and lack of accountability (Gager, 2001; Thame, 2007), a highly
centralized government coupled with weak local government institutions (Forbes, 1985, p. 4;
Grif?th, 2001), and a low level of participation by local communities (Economic Commission
for Latin America and the Caribbean, 2003, p. 201).
From a competitive standpoint, Jamaica’s tourism industry offers features that are distinctive
and desirable. The master plan’s focus on infrastructure is laudable, successfully providing
access to unique locations and historical sites. Protecting and preserving the environment,
an important component of a destination’s offerings, is being addressed through the
building of sewage systems and upgrading of water systems. Yet, these efforts may not
necessarily be perceived as a major achievement in terms of environmentally sustainable
tourism.
The JTB’s efforts to communicate the destination’s offerings to target markets should also be
favorably received and assist in the island’s effort to expand beyond the traditional US
market. Public-private partnerships, such as the government’s recent contracts with airlines
and Spanish resort owners, provide funding for future development. More directly related to
the master plan’s hard goals, they provide an opportunity to diversity Jamaica’s tourism
markets.
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 151
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
While strategists should include local stakeholders in the planning and development
process, results of the study indicate failure to do so. Anecdotally, claims have been made
that Jamaica’s resort boards are being marginalized and politicized, and individuals who
have been appointed by the Minister of Tourism are making decisions. Funds earmarked for
tourism development (i.e. the Tourism Enhancement Fund) are also being spent without
input from local stakeholders (Silvera, 2009).
Initiating and maintaining communication and encouraging af?liation between tourism
industry stakeholders is, at best, challenging. Individuals may perceive they are not able or
allowed to make decisions. Others may be unwilling to participate, permitting – or even
preferring that – someone else be responsible for policy and management. However, over
time, especially when conditions become unstable and/or growth falters, the divergence of
goals and opinions becomes increasingly palpable, underscoring the need for an approach
that consistently emphasizes stakeholder input. Even though a community-based approach
is a vital component in sustainable tourism ?nancial support from government and/or private
resources (e.g. to offer skills training and create internal marketing campaigns) is necessary
to enhance awareness of and involvement in development efforts. According to a participant
in the current study:
Cultural and eco-tourism provide the best avenues to develop a strong, vibrant and sustainable
competitive tourism product for Jamaica. The master plan is a valuable blueprint, but until it is
communicated to all stakeholders and receives buy in at the community level it will remain a
fantastic blueprint. It is time for the government to get going.
References
Arnstein, S. (1969), ‘‘A ladder of citizen participation’’, Journal of the American Institute of Planners,
Vol. 35 No. 4, pp. 216-24.
Blank, U. (1989), The Community Tourism Imperative: The Necessity, the Opportunities, its Potential,
Venture Publishing, State College, PA.
Bovy, M. (1982), ‘‘New concepts in planning for tourism and recreation’’, Tourism Planning, Vol. 3 No. 4,
pp. 308-13.
Bowe, R. (2005), ‘‘Red Stripe, yellow curry and green hotels’’, E Magazine, January/February, pp. 52-3.
Bramwell, B. and Lane, B. (1993), ‘‘Sustainable tourism: an evolving global approach’’, Journal of
Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 1, pp. 1-5.
Butler, R. (1980), ‘‘The concept of tourist-area cycle of evolution: implications for management of
resources’’, The Canadian Geographer, Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 5-12.
Carey, S., Gountas, Y. and Gilbert, D. (1997), ‘‘Tour operators and destination sustainability’’, Tourism
Management, Vol. 18, pp. 425-31.
Cater, E. (1993), ‘‘Ecotourismin the third world: problems for sustainable tourismdevelopment’’, Tourism
Management, Vol. 14, pp. 85-90.
CIA World Fact Book (2008), ‘‘CIA – The Word Factbook – Jamaica’’, p. 1.
Connell, D. (1997), ‘‘Participatory development: an approach sensitive to class and gender’’,
Development in Practice, Vol. 3, pp. 248-59.
Cook, K. (1982), ‘‘Guidelines for socially appropriate tourism development in British Columbia’’, Journal
of Travel Research, Vol. 21, pp. 22-8.
Cross, B. (2006), ‘‘In?nite rehearsal of culture in St. Catherine, Jamaica: Heritage as tourist product,
implications for Caribbean pedagogy’’, Pedagogy, Culture and Society, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 315-27.
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (2003), available at: www.eclac.org/
publicaciones/xml/9/13229/lcarg749-11-Chapter08.pdf (accessed 10 January 2009).
English Tourist Board (1991), The Future of England’s Smaller Seaside Resorts: Summary Report, ETB,
London.
PAGE 152
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Felstead, M. (2000), Master Plan for Community-Based Eco-Tourismin Ulgan Bay, Palawan, Republic of
the Philippines, UNESCO-UNDP-PPC, Puerto Princesa City.
Ferrell, O. and Hartline, M. (2008), Marketing Strategy, Thomson Southwestern, Mason, OH.
Forbes, J. (1985), Jamaica: Managing Political and Economic Change, American Enterprise Institute for
Public Policy Research, Washington, DC.
Gager, W. (2001), ‘ ‘Jamaica: struggles with accountability’ ’, Commonwealth Workshop on
Accountability, Scrutiny, and Oversight, Australia, May 23-25.
Getz, D. and Jamal, T. (1994), ‘‘The environment-community symbiosis: a case of collaborative tourism
planning’’, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 2 No. 3, pp. 152-73.
Government of Jamaica (2000), ‘‘Ministry of Industry and Tourism Master Plan’’, available at: http://
tourism.gov.jm/master_plan/executive_summary.html (accessed 9 November 2008).
Gray, B. (1985), ‘‘Conditions facilitating interorganizational collaboration’’, Human Relations, Vol. 38
No. 10, pp. 911-36.
Gray, B. (1989), Collaborating: Finding Common Ground for Multiparty Problems, Jossey-Bass, San
Francisco, CA.
Grif?th, I. (2001), ‘‘Democracy and governance in Jamaica: an assessment’’, Management Systems
International and United States Agency for International Development Report, February 22.
Harriott, A. (2007), ‘‘Risk perceptions and fear of criminal victimization among visitors to Jamaica:
bringing perceptions in line with reality’’, Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, Vol. 2/3, pp. 93-108.
Hassan, S. (2000), ‘‘Determinants of market competitiveness in an environmentally sustainable tourism
industry’’, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 35, pp. 239-45.
Haywood, M. (1988), ‘‘Responsible and responsive planning in the community’’, Tourism Management,
Vol. 9, pp. 105-18.
Jaffe, E. and Nebenzahl, I. (2006), National Image and Competitive Advantage: The Theory and Practice
of Place Branding, 2nd ed., Narayana, Gylling.
Jamaica Information Service (2009a), ‘‘Four per cent growth in tourist arrivals in 2008’’, press release,
January 13.
Jamaica Information Service (2009b), ‘‘Tourismmarketing approaches being optimized’’, press release,
January 16.
Jamaica Tourist Board (2008), ‘‘Annual Travel Statistics 2008’’, available at: www.jtbonline.org/statistics
(accessed 15 November 2008).
Jamaica Tourist Board (2009a), available at: www.visitjamaica.com (accessed 16 January 2009).
Jamaica Tourist Board (2009b), available at: www.visitjamaica.com/about-jamaica/facts-economy-
mainpage.aspx (accessed 16 January 2009).
Jamal, T. and Getz, D. (1995), ‘‘Collaboration theory and community tourism planning’’, Annals of
Tourism Research, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 186-204.
Joppe, M. (1996), ‘‘Sustainable community tourism development revisited’’, Tourism Management,
Vol. 17 No. 7, pp. 475-9.
Kleinhans, C. (2007), ‘‘Interview with Basil Smith, Director of Tourism for the Jamaica Tourist Board’’,
available at: www.jamaicans.com/articles/primetinterviews/Basilsmithinterview (accessed 14 January
2009).
McNeill, W. (2008), ‘‘Sectoral debate 2008 by opposition spokesperson on tourism’’, June 5, available at:
www.pnpjamaica.org (accessed 14 January 2009).
Madrigal, R. (1994), ‘‘Residents’ perceptions and the role of government’’, Annals of Tourism Research,
Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 86-102.
Manning, G. (2006a), ‘‘Too many rooms! – hotel growth pressuring infrastructure’’, Jamaica Gleaner,
September 16, available at: www.jamaicagleaner.com/gleaner/20060917/lead/lead1.html (accessed
14 January 2009).
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 153
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Manning, G. (2006b), ‘‘Jamaica not ready for massive resort development – PIOJ’’, Jamaica Gleaner,
September 17, available at: www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20070225/lead/lead1.html (accessed
17 January 2009).
Manning, G. (2008a), ‘‘St Ann is the poorest parish – Portland, St Thomas trail’’, Jamaica Gleaner,
August 3, available at: www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080803/lead/lead3.html (accessed
17 January 2009).
Manning, G. (2008b), ‘‘Government to review tourism master plan – environmentalists want policy with
teeth’’, April 27, available at: www.jamaicagleaner.com/gleaner/20080427/lead/lead5.html (accessed
9 November 2008).
Marino, J. (2008), ‘‘Caribbean hotel bookings plunge as economy sags’’, Reuters, November 8,
available at: www.reuters.com/article/companyNewsAndPR/ idUSN0740948120081107 (accessed
8 November 2008).
Munt, I. (1992), ‘‘A great escape?’’, Town and Country Planning, July/August, pp. 212-4.
Murphy, P. (1983), ‘‘Perceptions and attitudes of decision making groups in tourism centers’’, Journal of
Travel Research, Vol. 21, pp. 8-12.
Murphy, P. (1985), Tourism: A Community Approach, Methuen, New York, NY.
Myers, G. (2007), ‘‘Tourism pros feel the urgency to market their product better’’, Travel Weekly, Vol. 66
No. 26, p. 60.
Of?ce of the Prime Minister (2008), ‘‘Tourism arrivals and remittances still looking positive . . . says PM’’,
Jamaica Information Service, October 31, available at: www.jis.gov.jm/of?cepm/html/
20081031t1000000500 (accessed 8 November 2008).
Okazaki, E. (2008), ‘‘A community-based tourismmodel: its conception and use’’, Journal of Sustainable
Tourism, Vol. 16 No. 5, pp. 511-29.
Park, S. and Petrick, J. (2006), ‘‘Destinations’ perspectives of branding’’, Annals of Tourism Research,
Vol. 33 No. 1, pp. 262-5.
Pearce, P. (1994), ‘‘Tourist-resident impact: examples and emerging solutions’’, in Theobald, W.F. (Ed.),
Global Tourism: The Next Decade, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, pp. 103-23.
Porter, M. (1990), The Competitive Advantage of Nations, Macmillan, London.
Ryan, C. and Montgomery, D. (1994), ‘‘The attitudes of Bakewell residents to tourism and issues in
community responsive tourism’’, Tourism Management, Vol. 15 No. 5, pp. 35-369.
Sedmak, G. and Mihalic, T. (2008), ‘‘Authenticity in mature seaside resorts’’, Annals of Tourism
Research, Vol. 35 No. 4, pp. 1007-31.
Silvera, J. (2007), ‘‘Spring breakers shun Jamaica’’, Jamaica Gleaner, February 25, available at: www.
jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20070225/lead/lead1.html (accessed November 2008).
Silvera, J. (2008a), ‘‘Tourism-ad blitz: JTB pulling out all the stops to combat decline in North American
tourist arrivals’’, The Sunday Gleaner, Vol. 69 No. 50, pp. A1-A3.
Silvera, J. (2008b), ‘‘Sandals lays off 650’’, The Saturday Gleaner, Vol. 174 No. 298, pp. A1-A3.
Silvera, J. (2008c), ‘‘Jamaica Tourist Board execs quit – Another government board loses its directors’’,
Jamaica Gleaner, November 18, available at: www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20081118/lead/lead1.
html (accessed 14 January 2009).
Silvera, J. (2009), ‘‘JTB’s US$500,000 sponsorship causes controversy’’, Jamaica Gleaner, January 8,
available at: www.jamaicagleaner.com/gleaner/20090108/ent/ent1.html (accessed 10 January 2009).
Simmons, D. (1994), ‘‘Community participation in tourismplanning’’, TourismManagement, Vol. 15 No. 2,
pp. 98-108.
Springer, B. (2004), ‘‘Figures con?rm tourism’s importance to Carib. econ.’’, The New York Amsterdam
News, p. 14, June 17-24.
Srikatanyoo, N. and Gnoth, J. (2002), ‘‘Country image and international tertiary education’’, Journal of
Brand Management, Vol. 10, pp. 139-48.
PAGE 154
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
Taylor, G. (1995), ‘‘The community approach: does it really work?’’, Tourism Management, Vol. 16 No. 7,
pp. 487-9.
Thame, C. (2007), ‘‘What are they promising?’’, Jamaica Observer, August 15, available at: www.
jamaicaobserver.com/magazines/Business/html/20070814T220000-0500_126279_OBS_WHAT_ARE_
THEY_PROMISING_.asp (accessed 10 January 2009).
Thomas-Hope, E. and Jardine-Comrie, A. (2007), ‘‘Valuation of environmental resources for tourism in
small island developing states: implications for planning in Jamaica’’, International Development
Planning Review, Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 92-112.
Timothy, D. (2007), ‘‘Empowerment and stakeholder participation in tourism destination communities’’,
in Church, A. and Coles, T. (Eds), Tourism, Power and Space, Routledge, London, pp. 199-216.
Travelin’ Light (2008), ‘‘Jamaica Tourist Board reappointed’’, December 2, available at: www.
travelinglight.professionaltravelguide.com/2008/12/jamaica-tourist-board-reappointed.html (accessed
14 January 2009).
Williams, D.A. (2007), ‘‘Competitiveness of small enterprises: insights from a developing economy’’,
The Round Table, Vol. 96 No. 390, pp. 347-63.
Williams, D.A. and Deslandes, D. (2008), ‘‘Motivation for service sector foreign direct investments in
emerging economies: insights from the tourism industry in Jamaica’’, Round Table, Vol. 97 No. 396,
pp. 419-37.
World Travel and Tourism Council (2008), ‘‘WTTC TSA 2008 – Jamaica’’, available at: www.tourismroi.
com/InteriorTemplate.aspx?id ¼ 26532 (accessed 16 January 2009).
Corresponding author
Julie Z. Sneath can be contacted at: [email protected]
VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 155
To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected]
Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
This article has been cited by:
1. Janaina de Moura Engracia Giraldi. 2016. Evaluation of the impact of Brazil's sustainability on the behavioral intentions of
stakeholders toward the country. Evaluation and Program Planning 54, 135-143. [CrossRef]
2. Sarfaraz Hashemkhani Zolfani, Maedeh Sedaghat, Reza Maknoon, Edmundas Kazimieras Zavadskas. 2015. Sustainable
tourism: a comprehensive literature review on frameworks and applications. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja 28,
1-30. [CrossRef]
3. Manuel Calvo Trias, David Javaloyas Molina, Daniel Albero Santacreu, Jaume García Rosselló. 2014. Enhancing “Places”
Through Archaeological Heritage in Sun, Sand, and Sea Touristic Coastal Areas: A Case Study From Mallorca (Spain). The
Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 9, 341-363. [CrossRef]
4. Ihab Hanna Salman Sawalha, Luai Eid Jraisat, Kamal A.M. Al?Qudah. 2013. Crisis and disaster management in Jordanian
hotels: practices and cultural considerations. Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 22:3, 210-228.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
5. Karen R. Johnson, Kenneth R. Bartlett. 2013. The role of tourism in national human resource development: a Jamaican
perspective. Human Resource Development International 16, 205-219. [CrossRef]
6. Giacomo Del ChiappaCommunity Integration 243-263. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] [PDF]
7. Iolanda BarbeitosReferences 347-399. [Citation] [Enhanced Abstract] [PDF] [PDF]
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
1
0
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
doc_554490734.pdf