Description
The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the relationship between culture and tourism, and
the urban re-development process in Istanbul
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Culture, tourism and regeneration process in Istanbul
Ferhan Gezici Ebru Kerimoglu
Article information:
To cite this document:
Ferhan Gezici Ebru Kerimoglu, (2010),"Culture, tourism and regeneration process in Istanbul", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and
Hospitality Research, Vol. 4 Iss 3 pp. 252 - 265
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17506181011067637
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Maria D. Alvarez, #ükrü Yarcan, (2010),"Istanbul as a world city: a cultural perspective", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and
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Marichela Sepe, Giovanni Di Trapani, (2010),"Cultural tourism and creative regeneration: two case studies", International J ournal of Culture,
Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 4 Iss 3 pp. 214-227 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17506181011067600
Katherine B. Hartman, Tracy Meyer, Lisa L. Scribner, (2009),"Culture cushion: inherently positive inter-cultural tourist experiences",
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Culture, tourism and regeneration process
in Istanbul
Ferhan Gezici and Ebru Kerimoglu
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the relationship between culture and tourism, and
the urban re-development process in Istanbul.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper focuses on the case of Istanbul and reviews the city’s
goal of being a ?nancial, tourism, culture and innovation center.
Findings – The paper ?rst points to the facts and main attractions of tourism as being tangible and
intangible, and to the effects of national and local policies on cultural tourism development. In the
second part, the review focuses on existing and ongoing projects in order to discuss their strengths and
weaknesses, and the role of culture and tourism. Moreover, the paper presents a discussion of the
con?icts based on main concepts such as consumption-led, production-led, economic development or
quality of life goals, inclusive or exclusive processes, uniqueness or serial reproduction.
Originality/value – The ?ndings of the paper contribute to the literature by considering regeneration
along with culture and tourism.
Keywords Tourism, Culture, Urban areas, Regeneration, Turkey, Economic development
Paper type Case study
Introduction
During the last two decades, culture has gained signi?cant importance for restructuring the
urban economy. Touristic activities are attracting more visitors and allowing cities to become
more competitive. One of the main reasons is the changing economic structures of the cities
in Europe and North America. Cities have been moving from manufacturing to
service-based activities (de-industrialization), while ?nance capital has become more
dominant in the global economy, re?ecting neo-liberal trends. Furthermore, culture is
becoming more of a balanced tool for the conservation of heritage and the development of
new entertainment complexes (Smith, 2007). Many also consider culture to be a resource for
identity as well as an economic asset (Galdini, 2007). Thus, as Evans (2001) emphasizes,
‘‘place, culture and economy have become symbiotic categories in the post-fordist
economy’’.
On the other hand, cultural tourism is a signi?cant part of urban tourism, and it is growing
very quickly. Cities are competing not only to attract capital but also visitors. Cultural
heritage now accounts for 30 percent of the European tourism market, with attendance at
cultural sites doubling in the last twenty years (Bayliss, 2004; European Commission, 1998).
Cultural heritage is the main attraction of cities, cultural heritage conserves the cultural
values of the place and connects people to their collective memories. Moreover, cities have
increasingly made a business of culture (Richards and Wilson, 2006; Zukin, 1995), and
cultural institutions generally become more market-oriented because of reductions in the
level of public funding (Richards, 1996). However, while culture remains a signi?cant
component for tourism and urban economy, the meaning of culture becomes more
questionable. The anthropological concept of this word de?nes culture as a way of life, while
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VOL. 4 NO. 3 2010, pp. 252-265, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/17506181011067637
Ferhan Gezici is associate
professor and
Ebru Kerimoglu is assistant
professor, both based at
Faculty of Architecture,
Urban and Regional
Planning Department,
Istanbul Technical
University, Istanbul, Turkey.
Received December 2009
Revised January 2010
Accepted March 2010
The authors thank
Gizem Kucuksari for her
valuable contribution in
reproducing the maps and
Dr Maria Alvarez for her
assistance in editing this paper.
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cultural resources become the making of a place, including tangible and intangible qualities
(Jensen, 2007). Hence, cultural tourism is no longer merely the visual consumption of high
culture artifacts such as galleries, theaters and architecture, but is expanding to include
simply allowing visitors the opportunity of soaking up the atmosphere of the place (Galdini,
2007; Richards, 1996).
While approaches exist to mobilize the urban cultural resources for economic revitalization,
in line with urban renaissance (Evans, 2001), several criticisms also exist: Harvey (1989)
accuses cultural economic policies of being a ‘‘carnival mask’’, Richards and Wilson (2006)
use the de?nition of ‘‘cathedrals of consumption’’; Amin (2007) and Urry (2002) refer to
‘‘selling places for pleasure’’, while Amin (2007) and Berg (2003) emphasize that prestige
projects and consumption-led urban regeneration make the city a ‘‘citadel of spectacle’’.
While culture as a way of life and the forming of identities provides inspiration for creativity,
culture also creates commercialized products and services (Jensen, 2007). Miles and
Paddison (2005) point out that ‘‘the development of cultural forms of urban tourism is the
commodi?cation of culture and the spread of cultural capitalism’’. Similarly, Richards (1996)
acknowledges that commodi?cation is, to some extent, unavoidable, since cultural products
are speci?cally designed for tourist consumption. On the other hand, researchers have
different views about the impacts of tourism; while this activity reconstructs place identities,
tourism may also destroy these unique identities because global capitalism favors
homogenization rather than the maintenance of differences (Galdini, 2007).
As culture plays a signi?cant role in the restructuring of an urban economy and identity, an
increasing literature emerges on culture-led regeneration in the cities of the developed
world. Regeneration is the transformation of a place that is displaying symptoms of physical,
social and economic decline (Evans, 2005). However, culture is a catalyst for the
regeneration process, although the critics emphasize the main con?icts. While culture-led
regeneration projects try to reconstruct the urban economy and image, they often give
importance to economic development goals, property development, and urban
entrepreneurialism, rather than to the quality of life goals, the protection of local identities,
social justice or inclusion (Jensen, 2007). Current trends suggest a scenario of a rapidly
regenerating and gentrifying urban core, surrounded by a ring of intensely disadvantaged
residential areas (Jones and Wilks-Heeg, 2004). Therefore, many critics point to the
increasing social polarization, poverty and reproduction of inequality, which are largely
neglected during the regeneration process, as cities become the playgrounds for visitors
and investors (Mooney, 2004; Miles and Paddison, 2005; Bezmez, 2008).
Economic regeneration is more concerned with growth and property development and ?nds
expression in prestige projects and place marketing. Therefore, cultural quarters, heritage
sites, museums, events and creative businesses become the main components of culture
and tourism in the various experiences of the regeneration process, and the focus now is on
?agship projects (Evans, 2005; Smith, 2007). The critiques about many ?agship
developments are due to the fact that these projects bypass local communities or that
these inhabitants resist the changes (MacClancy, 1997; Plaza, 2000; Evans, 2005). Such
?agship developments highlight prestige and gentri?cation by creating places for a speci?c
class in the community. International events are increasingly becoming a new tool for
attracting visitors, bringing revenue for the cities and enhancing their competitiveness.
Mooney (2004) criticizes the policies and process of the European Capital of Culture Event in
Glasgow. He points out that there was no longer one Glasgow but two: an of?cial sanitized
version which overlooked or deliberately blotted out the existence of another ever poorer
section of society. Furthermore, as Jensen (2007) emphasizes: ‘‘many cities copied
attractions and buildings that have proven successful elsewhere rather than adopting a
unique strategy’’. The impact of globalization creates serial reproduction, placelessness
and homogenization (e.g. museum chains such as the Guggenheim) instead of
differentiating their products and experiences (Smith, 2007; MacClancy, 1997).
Cities are where the local people and visitors can meet through culture. While cities enhance
their position in the tourism market, the restructuring process of the cities is reinforced by
culture-led regenerations. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the relationship between
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culture and tourism, and the urban re-development process in the case of Istanbul, and to
discuss the main concepts and strategies. Considering Istanbul’s economy and cultural
heritage, the city does not yet attract as many visitors as desired. Therefore, the following
section will evaluate the tourism potential of Istanbul while pointing out the main dynamics
and evolutions within the metropolitan development. The third section focuses on the
regeneration agenda of Istanbul. The last section is an analysis of the existing and ongoing
projects, based on common cultural regeneration strategies such as cultural quarters,
heritage sites, museums, events, creative-cultural industries and ?agship projects, and a
de?nition of the role of culture and tourism on these projects in Istanbul.
An overview of Istanbul from the culture and tourism perspective
Istanbul with respect to tourism development and strategies in Turkey
After 1980, the economic and structural changes in Turkey affected the tourism sector as
well. While the economy became export oriented, the signi?cance of tourism as one of the
main income generators for the national economy increased. After the tourism
encouragement laws of 1982, coastal and developed regions received most of the
investment capital in order to increase tourism revenue. However, property development
interests and the idea of expanding bed capacity decided the level of subsidies, rather than
an integrated approach which took into account cultural attractions.
The dominance of sea-sun-sand triangle on Turkish tourism brought the need for new
approaches to extend tourism supply and demand throughout the country in the 1990s. The
aim was for alternative types of tourism to reduce seasonal concentrations and to help
attract visitors throughout the whole year. The Five-Year Development Plan (1996-2000),
highlighted the improvement of new alternative types of tourism by considering changing
demands to achieve a more balanced seasonal and spatial distribution of tourism (SPO,
1995). Moreover, the ?rst priority of Turkey’s 2010 tourism vision is to emphasize the cultural
variety and richness of Turkey (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2004). Consistent with the
policies to ensure tourism and cultural variety, cities are now more important as destinations.
These developments have substantially raised the expectations of Turkish tourism from
Istanbul, which is rich in cultural heritage and a place which has a unique atmosphere.
Turkey does not realize its tourist potential, and Istanbul, even with a historical background
that goes back thousands of years and which contains many cultures, does not achieve its
share of the global tourism market. While Turkey’s share is 2.6 percent of the world tourism
market, the share of Istanbul was 0.6 percent in 2005 (SPO, 2007).
Therefore, the development of the tourism function could be the most suitable tool for the
promotion of both Turkey and Istanbul on the world stage. However, Istanbul lacks strategies
for cultural tourism development within the national perspective, while the development and
appraisal of the current potential and the role of culture in urban regeneration have to relate
to local plans and policies.
Istanbul, the biggest city of Turkey on the basis of population (12 million), and the functions
performed, and subject to the most rapid and great change under contemporary conditions,
has a great potential to be an international city. Istanbul is the intersection point of the
country and the region’s transportation network, and has direct transportation capabilities to
all regions, while its employment opportunities, infrastructure and social facilities are higher
compared to other regions. The European Union considers that the Marmara Region, at the
center of which is Istanbul, will continue to be the pivot for Turkey’s development, and the
industrial decentralization in the region will be sustained, while Istanbul will advance to
become a global city (SPO, 2000). The primary goal of Istanbul’s local authorities is to look
after the city’s historical, cultural and natural resources, providing the city with a global status
by making use of regional opportunities within the economic structures of the world and
region, and to assume a leading role in this structuring by establishing a balanced
development (Istanbul Greater Municipality, 2007).
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Furthermore, it is inevitable to plan tourism elements of Istanbul in order to make the city
competitive in the international arena, and to follow new trends in the world. The common
view is that Istanbul has the highest potential for cultural tourism development in Turkey with
a focus on cultural heritage, museums, exhibitions, festivals, and trade-fair and congress
tourism. These functions and types of tourism are important contributors to the tourism
sector by satisfying the visitors, but they can also make a signi?cant contribution to the urban
quality. Therefore, most interested parties agree that Istanbul should make progress in
cultural tourism and use its rich cultural heritage and diversity for this purpose. Recently,
Istanbul was declared Culture Capital of Europe in 2010, and the related projects and funds
represent an opportunity by providing the right combination of culture, tourism and urban
regeneration, and the development of cultural tourism in Istanbul.
Tourism facts: tangible and intangible qualities of Istanbul
In Istanbul, between 1990 and 2000 the number of tourists increased 110 percent, which is
above the general increase rate of Turkey of 93 percent for the same period (TURSAB,
2002). In 2004, the number of foreign tourists visiting Istanbul was only 76 percent that of
Barcelona, 30 percent that of London and 14 percent that of Paris (IMP, 2006). However, this
number rose in more recent years; between 2000 and 2008 the number of foreign visitors
tripled (Table I). Today, although Istanbul is still behind London and Paris, the number of
foreign visitors is nearly the same as that of Barcelona (Table II). The increasing penetration
of low-cost airlines, as well as cruise ships, contribute to the growing arrival numbers.
However, increasing arrivals do not necessarily indicate greater bene?ts fromtourism. Given
the short average length of stay for Istanbul and limited tourism product offerings targeting
Table II Comparison between Istanbul and some other European cities
Istanbul Barcelona Paris London Vienna
Number of visitors/million 6.5
a
7.1
a
27
a
25.4
a
4.2
a
Number of hotels 419
a
236
a
1,466
a
1,639
a
373
a
Number of museums 69
b
51
b
137
b
76
b
100
a
Number of museum visitors-(?rst ten)/million 4.5
a
16
a
55
a
27.7
d
7
a
Number of congresses (national – international) 858
a
713
a
66
e
106
e
115
e
69
e
154
e
Number of theaters 73
b
45
a
138
b
178
b
Occupancy rate (%) 47.79
a
75.50
b
78.4
a
82
a
57.85
a
Average length of stay 2.1
a
3.6
b
2.7
a
6.2
a
2.2
a
Advertising budget-euro/million 0.65
c
10
c
120
c
20
c
27.1
a
Notes:
a
2007;
b
2004;
c
2003 TUYED;
d
2006;
e
2007 ICCA database (only international), Municipality of Barcelona, Statistics Department,
Paris Convention and Visitors Bureau Statistics, London Tourism Of?ce, Vienna Convention Bureau, Turkish Ministry of Culture and
Tourism
Table I Number of arrivals to Istanbul by years
Share in Turkey
Years Istanbul (%)
1995 2,006,413 26
2000 2,420,541 23.21
2001 2,517,139 21.66
2002 2,705,848 20.41
2003 3,148,266 22.44
2004 3,473,185 19.83
2005 4, 849,220 22.96
2006 5,346,681 26.98
2007 6,453,598 27.69
2008* 7,050,748 26.77
Note: *Provisional, Ministry of Culture and Tourism annual statistics
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the different market segments, it is highly unlikely that the average spending of visitors is
increasing at the same rate as the number of arrivals (GWU and BU, 2007).
In general, the number of beds in Istanbul is 79,065 (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007).
Although this number is far behind that of cities like Paris and London, the low occupancy
rates indicate that in fact the bed capacity is not the issue for tourism in Istanbul (Table II).
In order to realize the signi?cance of these numbers, it would be helpful to have an overview
of the main tourism attractions based on the heritage sites, museums, events, arts and
festivals.
In terms of tourism product and target markets, Turkey mainly competes with other similar
Mediterranean destinations. In this context, many regard Istanbul as a gateway to sun and
sea destinations, attracting visitors for an average length of 2.1 days, compared to the
average of six-seven days for coastal destinations. However, leading travel publications
include Istanbul in their lists for Top Ten European City destinations, safest cities in Europe
and top global destinations. On the other hand, the richness and vibrancy of the local
culture, the combination of modernity and elements of ancient histories, the unique location
spanning over two continents, and the praised local cuisine constitute intangible elements
that are part of Istanbul’s competitive advantage (GWU and BU, 2007).
The historical peninsula is the main cultural quarter of Istanbul having a cultural heritage and
tourism infrastructure. The historical peninsula has the highest number of tourist attractions,
such as museums, monuments (Topkap? Palace, Hagia Sophia, the Blue Mosque, and the
Grand Bazaar), while both historical patterns and civil architecture are in this area. The
Emino¨ nu¨ district, which is in this area, includes 40 percent of the total bed capacity of
Istanbul (Figure 1). Out of the 69 museums of Istanbul, 18 are also in this district (IMP, 2006).
Currently, less than 40 percent of international visitors to Istanbul visit museums and
numerous valuable sites suffer fromlack of revenue due to minimal visitation. In contrast with
other places in Turkey, Istanbul has a large number of museums. Coupled with the fact that
cultural heritage tourists are a major target market for Istanbul, the museum visitation of the
tourists ought to be relatively high. However, the current level of museum visitation in the
historic peninsula is low. Istanbul is far behind other European cities in terms of number of
museum visitors. The two most important museums of Istanbul have a total of 3,932,852
visitors every year (2007) (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2008), whereas the Tate Museum
in London attracts 6,412,000 visitors annually (London Tourism Of?ce, 2007).
Another historical site of tourism potential with a high density of culture and art facilities (39
percent) is the Beyog? lu district (IMP, 2006). In addition, various archaeological, historical,
natural and urban conservation areas exist creating different identities of Istanbul located in
various regions. After the declaration of Istanbul as the 2010 European Capital of Culture, the
Ministry of Culture and Tourism announced its support for many regeneration projects that
will take place with collaboration between public-local government and institutions
-NGO’s-educational- art and culture institutions in the mentioned historical quarters (Ministry
of Culture and Tourism, 2009). Therefore, Istanbul’s historical heritage makes the city an
attractive tourismdestination and Istanbul’s recent nomination as the 2010 European Capital
of Culture led to a series of renovation, restoration and demolition projects, complemented
with ?nancial incentives to increase the tangible capacities such as hotel, museums and
other cultural amenities (OECD, 2008).
Among cultural activities, festivals occupy an important place and the ratio of established
festivals with a history of more than ten years is 27 percent (21 in number). Public support for
the festivals is only 3 percent, whereas in Europe public support is on average 30 percent
(IMP, 2006). The number of facilities is increasing for important festivals and various art
activities, especially after the year 2000, and these facilities are more modern and
competitive in capacity and quality. Projects that recently ?nished are important steps in
ensuring quality and diversity of the culture potential of Istanbul. However, these new
projects depend on the restoration of historical structure inventory and hence mostly in the
scale of the buildings. Furthermore, new developments also require new locations, which
also contribute to urban regeneration. The following section examines the existing and
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ongoing regeneration cultural projects, which assist the culture and tourism potentials of
Istanbul mentioned above.
Evaluation of regeneration projects with respect to culture and tourism
Neo-liberal movements have strongly affected Istanbul in de?ning its vision to be a
world-global city. While the interest on cultural heritage increases, especially related to the
UNESCO convention, the aim of attracting more investors created an environment for real
estate developers and consumption-led projects with new and modern complexes in
Istanbul. Figure 2 displays the increasing number of shopping malls, of?ce buildings and
high-standard hotels as the new faces of Istanbul since the 1990s.
The literature on city competitiveness with respect to tourism and culture highlights
restructuring of the cities based on some common cultural regeneration strategies such as
cultural quarters, heritage sites, museums, international events, cultural industries and
?agship projects. This section will evaluate 19 regeneration projects in the Istanbul Master
Plan, with respect to these strategies.
The main reasons for the establishment of The Istanbul Metropolitan Planning and Urban
Design Centre were to draw the vision of Istanbul and to prepare the master plan for future
decades in 2005. Even though the local authority in the Istanbul Metropolitan Area has power
Figure 1 The distribution of number of beds and tourism centers
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in this process, the importance of the central government regarding planning is still strong,
and the central government takes several top-down decisions, which are made without any
integration to the master plan. If the Ministry of Culture and Tourism declares any area as a
tourism center (see these centers in Figure 1), the Greater or District Municipality plays no
part in the process. These power struggles between the authorities created con?icts and a
fragmented approach towards the spatial development of the metropolitan area. The two
main strategies of the Istanbul Master Plan are to raise the competitiveness and provide
sustainability. Several challenging objectives exist: the conservation of Istanbul’s historical
and cultural heritage, the preservation of Istanbul’s natural resources, the development of
new activities and the enhancement of the diversi?cation of the economy. According to both
the OECD Report (2008) and the Istanbul Master Plan (Istanbul Greater Municipality, 2007),
Istanbul should have a broader perspective regarding its position as a regional and
international center, and should make use of its key qualities in ?nance, logistics, culture,
tourism and innovation. As Gu¨ venc¸ points out, Istanbul has had a global perspective since
the 1990s, and the changing functions and new visions of the city highlight the concept of
urban regeneration and the implementation of big projects with the support of a new legal
framework. However, their fragmented approach draws criticism (Istanbul Chamber of City
Planners, 2007).
Istanbul’s master plan has 19 projects. These are in regeneration areas with different
locations, focus, and functions in the regeneration process (Table III, Figure 3). The projects
come under two main classi?cations, Cultural Heritage Projects and Flagship Projects, in
order to emphasize the overall policy and various implementations of the policy in cultural
heritage sites and re-development areas for new and modern functions and complexes.
Therefore, there is an evaluation of two projects as cases of heritagization, and two projects
as ?agships with the following criteria: visions, goals, focus, existing and proposed
functions, decision and implementation process, actors, critics and the possible impact of
the projects. Location, functions and focus gave the classi?cation parameters for the
projects in order to see the typologies of culture-led regeneration in Istanbul (Table III).
Cultural heritage projects
In the concept of Istanbul Master Plan, the Historical Peninsula, as the heart of cultural
heritage and the magnet for visitors, has several projects such as The Historical Peninsula
Heritage Management Plan, The City Wall Conservation Master Plan, The Theodosius
Harbor Planning Project, The Fener-Balat Regeneration Project and The Museum City
Project as cases of heritagization. UNESCO included Istanbul in its convention concerning
Figure 2 Number of hotels, shopping malls, and of?ce buildings in Istanbul by years
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the protection of the world’s cultural and natural heritage in 1985. The occasional threats
from UNESCO to exclude Istanbul from the convention rise signi?cant concern.
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality has a Museum City Project that aims to prevent the risk of
the historical peninsula losing its place on the World Heritage List. Initial studies of the
project, which is exclusively focusing on the historical quarter, date back to 2004 and studies
into legal instruments and implementation procedures continue. In the scope of the project
the historical urban patterns of Istanbul, especially in areas like the Historical peninsula, the
Golden Horn and the Beyog? lu quarter, undergo regeneration, including the people living in
those areas, and the objective is for them to become places that re?ect their richness and
historical characteristics. Part of the project is the determination of pilot areas, and in these
areas regeneration implementations take place concurrently with socio-economic projects.
One of the gravest critiques is that ‘‘it sees the history of a world city like Istanbul as an object
exhibited in a museum’’ (Yap? Journal, 2006). While the intensity of restoration activities with
the fabric scale attracts attention, the process does not have a comprehensive approach.
No detailed explanations exist in terms of means and resources of implementation, for the
proposed functions in the project areas. Additionally, another controversial point is that the
large scale of the project area and scope makes constructing a coherent structure harder for
sub-designs and renovation projects.
One of the several projects being implemented in the historical peninsula is the Fener-Balat
Regeneration Project. The undertaking, which refers to two neighborhoods that run along
one side of the Golden Horn, started in 1997 with a joint intervention between the Fatih
District Municipality, UNESCO and the European Union. Fener was mostly home to Greek
people, while Balat was the main Jewish district during the Ottoman period. After the
departure of the original residents, the neighborhoods became the major arrival points for
the migrants from Anatolia during the ?rst half of the twentieth century (Bezmez, 2008; Narl?,
1997). In the 1980s the interventions of Dalan, the mayor of Istanbul, to clean up the
industrial areas broke the existing social and economic networks within the region, and
therefore the area became poverty-stricken, with a lack of infrastructure and unhealthy
conditions. The aim of the current project is the conservation of the cultural heritage and the
Figure 3 Distribution of regeneration projects in Istanbul Metropolitan Area
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increase in the living standard of the current residents, while the promotion of tourism, based
on the idea of emphasizing Fener and Balat’s historic heritage, seems like a viable choice
(Bezmez, 2008). But the implementation of the project is taking a long time. This is due to
different reasons, although the most signi?cant ones are the mistrust of the residents
towards the project, the number of property owners interested in preserving their investment,
and the changes already made by the residents to the original buildings.
Flagship projects
The Halic¸ Cultural Valley is a ?agship project which includes cultural centers and museums.
Halic¸ is located on both sides of the Golden Horn as part of the Historical Peninsula, and
transformation actually started in the mid 1980s as a top-down initiative (Bezmez, 2008).
With its 16 km long coast, the Golden Horn was historically a main industrial and shipyard
area, but the plan is to make Halic¸ into a cultural valley. The ‘‘Cultural Valley’’ project is
dealing with the re?nement of the coasts and surroundings of the Golden Horn, regaining its
vitality with its historical and natural values. Along the coast of the Golden Horn (Halic¸ ) a
number of regeneration projects continue, most of them giving the old buildings new
functions. The Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources handed Silahtaraga Power Plant,
which was the ?rst power plant built during Ottoman Empire times, to Istanbul Bilgi University
in 2004. The power plant is now a university campus, and has museums, like the Museum of
Modern Art and the Energy Museum, within the facility. The Rahmi Koc Museum of Industry
stands upon the foundations of a twelfth century Byzantium building and now the facility is
one of the most modern museums of Istanbul. The museum is not a pro?t-oriented initiative;
rather it is a prestige investment for the one of the biggest companies in Turkey (Bezmez,
2008). The municipality manages the Feshane Cultural Center in a renovated old textile
factory constructed in 1839, but it remains unnoticed by most of the residents (Bezmez,
2008). Furthermore, in the same area is nowan open-air museum, Miniaturk. A renovated old
slaughterhouse is nowthe Sutluce Cultural Center, which opened in 2009 for the World Water
Forum. When all these projects are completed, many expect that Halic¸ will be one of the
most important areas to serve cultural tourism in the city. However, there have been critics of
the process ever since the Halic¸ emerged as a large empty land area after the
de-industrialization process in the 1980s. The objective is to internationalize Istanbul,
although public initiatives to manage the process remain weak. Moreover, Bezmez (2008)
points out that most of the residents still perceive Halic¸ as a place of deterioration and
isolation, and de?nes the area as including mostly local oriented projects, rather than what
was promised.
The Kartal Regeneration Project is also a ?agship project on the Eastern side of Istanbul. The
area used to be an old industrial district and the transformation started spontaneously. Great
imbalances exist between the Eastern and Western sides of Istanbul in terms of distribution
of commerce, industry, culture and administration functions. Central Business Districts,
especially, are mainly on the Western side of Istanbul. This inequality not only exerts
pressure on the natural and historical fabric of the city, but unequal distribution of economic
functions also creates problems in transportation. In this sense, within the metropolitan plan,
the aim of the project in Kartal is to offset this imbalance and allow Kartal to gain more
importance as the area creates an alternative in the Eastern side to the current Central
Business Districts. There was an international competition for the Kartal regeneration
project, and the design of famous architect Zaha Hadid won the prize. This area will have a
privileged high density, while the Mayor pronounced Kartal the ‘‘Manhattan of Istanbul’’. The
project area is one of the largest urban regeneration areas in the world in terms of size,
number of of?ces, limited number of residences, cultural center, opera house, recreation
areas along the lake, public buildings, shopping mall, hotels, restaurants and marina.
However, critiques suggest that 60 percent of the planned construction in the scope of the
project is commercial area. Considering the scarcity of A grade of?ce space in Istanbul,
Kartal will have twice as many of?ces as the current supply of Istanbul (Erso¨ z, 2008). The
discussion questions whether these new of?ces are usable or necessary. Other criticisms
also exist about the density that will increase with the project, and the project’s adaptability to
the surroundings.
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Other projects differ according to their location and focuses (Table III, Figure 3). Since most
of these projects are still in the decision process rather than in the implementation phase, it is
preferable to indicate the diversi?cation and typologies of these regeneration projects. While
some of them are Central Business District (CBD) integrated projects including the
transformation of industrial areas to extend to the CBDby highlighting cultural industries, two
of them, which are at the main gates of the city as the harbor and/or customs area, are
mega-waterfront development projects in the central part. Several regeneration projects
also exist in the Istanbul Master Plan which aims to design and develop the periphery in an
organized manner. The second and third rings include two Hosting Events Projects, while
four of themare peripheral recreation and tourismcenters on the two sides of Istanbul. These
projects would address the long term challenge to create not only new economic activities
but also new visitor attraction areas within the city, rather than concentrating only on the
historical peninsula.
Conclusion
This paper evaluates how culture is used in the regeneration process with respect to cultural
tourism in Istanbul. Recently, the changing structure of cities has enhanced the signi?cance
of cultural tourism, both for raising their cultural heritage and for developing new activities
and areas for attracting visitors. This makes cities more competitive by creating landmarks in
the city and giving importance to creative and cultural industries as new economic activities
and attractions which are complementary to the heritage sites.
Istanbul, in de?ning its role of being a global city, and as being the heart of economic and
cultural activities of Turkey, needs to emphasize its vitality. With these challenging objectives,
restructuring the city has several dimensions, such as conserving cultural and natural sites,
sustainability, increasing quality of life, economic development and diversi?cation.
Therefore, the regeneration activities have become more and more signi?cant with their
focuses and processes. The analysis of regeneration projects in Istanbul indicates that
culture and tourism are included as major activities. However, their focus and dominance
changes, as culture and tourismbecome important components to increase the quality of life
in the city and attract more visitors. Except for the heritage sites, most of the projects are
developing based on a consumption-led approach, with the goal of economic and property
development. The contents of the projects follow world experiences and are classi?ed with
respect to different cultural regeneration strategies. Moreover, their focus is much more on
creating ‘‘?agships’’ as prestige areas of the city, and a citadel of spectacle for city users.
The criticisms of ongoing projects are that they are fragmented, the scale of privileged
densities, the dominance of commercial areas, the ignoring of the impacts on surrounding
areas and the people who live in those areas, and that these create issues of gentri?cation
and social exclusion and neglect the concept of public interest.
However, it is quite early to evaluate the impacts of these projects on cultural tourism and
urban development, and to see whether they have brought a diversi?cation of the economy,
an enhancement of the tourism infrastructure, a raise in the number of visitors and revenues,
and an increase in the quality of life in Istanbul. These bene?ts may be achieved if the
governing bodies manage projects by considering the criticisms mentioned above and by
emphasizing the uniqueness of Istanbul rather than increased homogenization.
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SPO (State Planning Of?ce) (2000), 8th 5 Years Development Plan, Regional Development
Specialization Commission Report, State Planning Of?ce, Ankara.
SPO (State Planning Of?ce) (2007), 9th 5 Years Development Plan, Tourism Specialization Commission
Report, State Planning Of?ce, Ankara.
TURSAB (Association of Turkish Travel Agencies) (2002), Annual Study Report, Association of Turkish
Travel Agencies, Istanbul.
Urry, J. (2002), The Tourist Gaze, 2nd ed., Sage, London.
Yap? Journal (2006), ‘‘Istanbul mu¨ ze kent projesi bag? lam?nda go¨ zlemler’’, Museum City Additional Issue
of Yap? Journal, Vol. 292, March.
Zukin, S. (1995), The Culture of Cities, Blackwell, Oxford.
Further reading
Ministry of Culture and Tourism (1994), ‘‘Tourism statistics’’, available at: www.kulturturizm.gov.tr,
(accessed March 2009).
Ministry of Culture and Tourism (1999), ‘‘Tourism statistics’’, available at: www.kulturturizm.gov.tr,
(accessed March 2009).
Ministry of Culture and Tourism (2000), ‘‘Tourism statistics’’, available at: www.kulturturizm.gov.tr,
(accessed March 2009).
Ministry of Culture and Tourism (2001), ‘‘Tourism statistics’’, available at: www.kulturturizm.gov.tr,
(accessed March 2009).
Ministry of Culture and Tourism (2002), ‘‘Tourism statistics’’, available at: www.kulturturizm.gov.tr,
(accessed March 2009).
Ministry of Culture and Tourism (2003), ‘‘Tourism statistics’’, available at: www.kulturturizm.gov.tr,
(accessed March 2009).
Ministry of Culture and Tourism (2004), ‘‘Tourism statistics’’, available at: www.kulturturizm.gov.tr,
(accessed March 2009).
Ministry of Culture and Tourism (2005), ‘‘Tourism statistics’’, available at: www.kulturturizm.gov.tr,
(accessed March 2009).
Ministry of Culture and Tourism (2006), ‘‘Tourism statistics’’, available at: www.kulturturizm.gov.tr,
(accessed March 2009).
Ministry of Culture and Tourism (2008), ‘‘Tourism statistics’’, available at: www.kulturturizm.gov.tr,
(accessed March 2009).
Pamir, D.T.Z. (2008), Real Estate Database for Istanbul from 1990 to 2008, DTZ Pamir and Soyuer Real
Estate Company, Istanbul.
ICCA (International Congress and Convention Association) (2007), ‘‘Statistics on the international
meetings market’’, available at: www.iccaworld.com (accessed 20 March 2009).
Municipality of Barcelona, Statistics Department (2007), ‘‘Tourism ?gures’’, available at: www.bcn.cat/
estadistica/angles/index.htm (accessed March 2009).
Paris Convention and Visitors Bureau (2007), ‘‘Tourism statistics’’, available at: http://en.parisinfo.com/
(accessed March 2009).
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TUYED (Turkish Tourism Journals Association) (2003), Turkish Tourism Self Study Report, Turkish
Tourism Journals Association, Istanbul.
Vienna Convention Bureau (2007), ‘‘Tourism ?gures’’, available at: www.vienna.convention.at/
(accessed March, 2009).
About the authors
Ferhan Gezici is an associate professor in the Department of Urban and Regional Planning,
ITU Faculty of Architecture. Her research interests include tourism and regional
development, urban tourism, tourism and environment, tourism planning, tourism impacts,
and coastal development. She lectures on tourism and the environment, tourism and
regional development. Ferhan Gezici is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
[email protected]
Ebru Kerimoglu is an assistant professor in the Department of Urban and Regional Planning,
ITU Faculty of Architecture. Her research interests are urban tourism, tourism planning and
policies, tourism and regional development.
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This article has been cited by:
1. Ferhan Gezici, Serra Er. 2014. What has been left after hosting the Formula 1 Grand Prix in Istanbul?. Cities 41, 44-53.
[CrossRef]
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doc_512138005.pdf
The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the relationship between culture and tourism, and
the urban re-development process in Istanbul
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Culture, tourism and regeneration process in Istanbul
Ferhan Gezici Ebru Kerimoglu
Article information:
To cite this document:
Ferhan Gezici Ebru Kerimoglu, (2010),"Culture, tourism and regeneration process in Istanbul", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and
Hospitality Research, Vol. 4 Iss 3 pp. 252 - 265
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Marichela Sepe, Giovanni Di Trapani, (2010),"Cultural tourism and creative regeneration: two case studies", International J ournal of Culture,
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Culture, tourism and regeneration process
in Istanbul
Ferhan Gezici and Ebru Kerimoglu
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the relationship between culture and tourism, and
the urban re-development process in Istanbul.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper focuses on the case of Istanbul and reviews the city’s
goal of being a ?nancial, tourism, culture and innovation center.
Findings – The paper ?rst points to the facts and main attractions of tourism as being tangible and
intangible, and to the effects of national and local policies on cultural tourism development. In the
second part, the review focuses on existing and ongoing projects in order to discuss their strengths and
weaknesses, and the role of culture and tourism. Moreover, the paper presents a discussion of the
con?icts based on main concepts such as consumption-led, production-led, economic development or
quality of life goals, inclusive or exclusive processes, uniqueness or serial reproduction.
Originality/value – The ?ndings of the paper contribute to the literature by considering regeneration
along with culture and tourism.
Keywords Tourism, Culture, Urban areas, Regeneration, Turkey, Economic development
Paper type Case study
Introduction
During the last two decades, culture has gained signi?cant importance for restructuring the
urban economy. Touristic activities are attracting more visitors and allowing cities to become
more competitive. One of the main reasons is the changing economic structures of the cities
in Europe and North America. Cities have been moving from manufacturing to
service-based activities (de-industrialization), while ?nance capital has become more
dominant in the global economy, re?ecting neo-liberal trends. Furthermore, culture is
becoming more of a balanced tool for the conservation of heritage and the development of
new entertainment complexes (Smith, 2007). Many also consider culture to be a resource for
identity as well as an economic asset (Galdini, 2007). Thus, as Evans (2001) emphasizes,
‘‘place, culture and economy have become symbiotic categories in the post-fordist
economy’’.
On the other hand, cultural tourism is a signi?cant part of urban tourism, and it is growing
very quickly. Cities are competing not only to attract capital but also visitors. Cultural
heritage now accounts for 30 percent of the European tourism market, with attendance at
cultural sites doubling in the last twenty years (Bayliss, 2004; European Commission, 1998).
Cultural heritage is the main attraction of cities, cultural heritage conserves the cultural
values of the place and connects people to their collective memories. Moreover, cities have
increasingly made a business of culture (Richards and Wilson, 2006; Zukin, 1995), and
cultural institutions generally become more market-oriented because of reductions in the
level of public funding (Richards, 1996). However, while culture remains a signi?cant
component for tourism and urban economy, the meaning of culture becomes more
questionable. The anthropological concept of this word de?nes culture as a way of life, while
PAGE 252
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VOL. 4 NO. 3 2010, pp. 252-265, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/17506181011067637
Ferhan Gezici is associate
professor and
Ebru Kerimoglu is assistant
professor, both based at
Faculty of Architecture,
Urban and Regional
Planning Department,
Istanbul Technical
University, Istanbul, Turkey.
Received December 2009
Revised January 2010
Accepted March 2010
The authors thank
Gizem Kucuksari for her
valuable contribution in
reproducing the maps and
Dr Maria Alvarez for her
assistance in editing this paper.
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cultural resources become the making of a place, including tangible and intangible qualities
(Jensen, 2007). Hence, cultural tourism is no longer merely the visual consumption of high
culture artifacts such as galleries, theaters and architecture, but is expanding to include
simply allowing visitors the opportunity of soaking up the atmosphere of the place (Galdini,
2007; Richards, 1996).
While approaches exist to mobilize the urban cultural resources for economic revitalization,
in line with urban renaissance (Evans, 2001), several criticisms also exist: Harvey (1989)
accuses cultural economic policies of being a ‘‘carnival mask’’, Richards and Wilson (2006)
use the de?nition of ‘‘cathedrals of consumption’’; Amin (2007) and Urry (2002) refer to
‘‘selling places for pleasure’’, while Amin (2007) and Berg (2003) emphasize that prestige
projects and consumption-led urban regeneration make the city a ‘‘citadel of spectacle’’.
While culture as a way of life and the forming of identities provides inspiration for creativity,
culture also creates commercialized products and services (Jensen, 2007). Miles and
Paddison (2005) point out that ‘‘the development of cultural forms of urban tourism is the
commodi?cation of culture and the spread of cultural capitalism’’. Similarly, Richards (1996)
acknowledges that commodi?cation is, to some extent, unavoidable, since cultural products
are speci?cally designed for tourist consumption. On the other hand, researchers have
different views about the impacts of tourism; while this activity reconstructs place identities,
tourism may also destroy these unique identities because global capitalism favors
homogenization rather than the maintenance of differences (Galdini, 2007).
As culture plays a signi?cant role in the restructuring of an urban economy and identity, an
increasing literature emerges on culture-led regeneration in the cities of the developed
world. Regeneration is the transformation of a place that is displaying symptoms of physical,
social and economic decline (Evans, 2005). However, culture is a catalyst for the
regeneration process, although the critics emphasize the main con?icts. While culture-led
regeneration projects try to reconstruct the urban economy and image, they often give
importance to economic development goals, property development, and urban
entrepreneurialism, rather than to the quality of life goals, the protection of local identities,
social justice or inclusion (Jensen, 2007). Current trends suggest a scenario of a rapidly
regenerating and gentrifying urban core, surrounded by a ring of intensely disadvantaged
residential areas (Jones and Wilks-Heeg, 2004). Therefore, many critics point to the
increasing social polarization, poverty and reproduction of inequality, which are largely
neglected during the regeneration process, as cities become the playgrounds for visitors
and investors (Mooney, 2004; Miles and Paddison, 2005; Bezmez, 2008).
Economic regeneration is more concerned with growth and property development and ?nds
expression in prestige projects and place marketing. Therefore, cultural quarters, heritage
sites, museums, events and creative businesses become the main components of culture
and tourism in the various experiences of the regeneration process, and the focus now is on
?agship projects (Evans, 2005; Smith, 2007). The critiques about many ?agship
developments are due to the fact that these projects bypass local communities or that
these inhabitants resist the changes (MacClancy, 1997; Plaza, 2000; Evans, 2005). Such
?agship developments highlight prestige and gentri?cation by creating places for a speci?c
class in the community. International events are increasingly becoming a new tool for
attracting visitors, bringing revenue for the cities and enhancing their competitiveness.
Mooney (2004) criticizes the policies and process of the European Capital of Culture Event in
Glasgow. He points out that there was no longer one Glasgow but two: an of?cial sanitized
version which overlooked or deliberately blotted out the existence of another ever poorer
section of society. Furthermore, as Jensen (2007) emphasizes: ‘‘many cities copied
attractions and buildings that have proven successful elsewhere rather than adopting a
unique strategy’’. The impact of globalization creates serial reproduction, placelessness
and homogenization (e.g. museum chains such as the Guggenheim) instead of
differentiating their products and experiences (Smith, 2007; MacClancy, 1997).
Cities are where the local people and visitors can meet through culture. While cities enhance
their position in the tourism market, the restructuring process of the cities is reinforced by
culture-led regenerations. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the relationship between
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culture and tourism, and the urban re-development process in the case of Istanbul, and to
discuss the main concepts and strategies. Considering Istanbul’s economy and cultural
heritage, the city does not yet attract as many visitors as desired. Therefore, the following
section will evaluate the tourism potential of Istanbul while pointing out the main dynamics
and evolutions within the metropolitan development. The third section focuses on the
regeneration agenda of Istanbul. The last section is an analysis of the existing and ongoing
projects, based on common cultural regeneration strategies such as cultural quarters,
heritage sites, museums, events, creative-cultural industries and ?agship projects, and a
de?nition of the role of culture and tourism on these projects in Istanbul.
An overview of Istanbul from the culture and tourism perspective
Istanbul with respect to tourism development and strategies in Turkey
After 1980, the economic and structural changes in Turkey affected the tourism sector as
well. While the economy became export oriented, the signi?cance of tourism as one of the
main income generators for the national economy increased. After the tourism
encouragement laws of 1982, coastal and developed regions received most of the
investment capital in order to increase tourism revenue. However, property development
interests and the idea of expanding bed capacity decided the level of subsidies, rather than
an integrated approach which took into account cultural attractions.
The dominance of sea-sun-sand triangle on Turkish tourism brought the need for new
approaches to extend tourism supply and demand throughout the country in the 1990s. The
aim was for alternative types of tourism to reduce seasonal concentrations and to help
attract visitors throughout the whole year. The Five-Year Development Plan (1996-2000),
highlighted the improvement of new alternative types of tourism by considering changing
demands to achieve a more balanced seasonal and spatial distribution of tourism (SPO,
1995). Moreover, the ?rst priority of Turkey’s 2010 tourism vision is to emphasize the cultural
variety and richness of Turkey (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2004). Consistent with the
policies to ensure tourism and cultural variety, cities are now more important as destinations.
These developments have substantially raised the expectations of Turkish tourism from
Istanbul, which is rich in cultural heritage and a place which has a unique atmosphere.
Turkey does not realize its tourist potential, and Istanbul, even with a historical background
that goes back thousands of years and which contains many cultures, does not achieve its
share of the global tourism market. While Turkey’s share is 2.6 percent of the world tourism
market, the share of Istanbul was 0.6 percent in 2005 (SPO, 2007).
Therefore, the development of the tourism function could be the most suitable tool for the
promotion of both Turkey and Istanbul on the world stage. However, Istanbul lacks strategies
for cultural tourism development within the national perspective, while the development and
appraisal of the current potential and the role of culture in urban regeneration have to relate
to local plans and policies.
Istanbul, the biggest city of Turkey on the basis of population (12 million), and the functions
performed, and subject to the most rapid and great change under contemporary conditions,
has a great potential to be an international city. Istanbul is the intersection point of the
country and the region’s transportation network, and has direct transportation capabilities to
all regions, while its employment opportunities, infrastructure and social facilities are higher
compared to other regions. The European Union considers that the Marmara Region, at the
center of which is Istanbul, will continue to be the pivot for Turkey’s development, and the
industrial decentralization in the region will be sustained, while Istanbul will advance to
become a global city (SPO, 2000). The primary goal of Istanbul’s local authorities is to look
after the city’s historical, cultural and natural resources, providing the city with a global status
by making use of regional opportunities within the economic structures of the world and
region, and to assume a leading role in this structuring by establishing a balanced
development (Istanbul Greater Municipality, 2007).
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Furthermore, it is inevitable to plan tourism elements of Istanbul in order to make the city
competitive in the international arena, and to follow new trends in the world. The common
view is that Istanbul has the highest potential for cultural tourism development in Turkey with
a focus on cultural heritage, museums, exhibitions, festivals, and trade-fair and congress
tourism. These functions and types of tourism are important contributors to the tourism
sector by satisfying the visitors, but they can also make a signi?cant contribution to the urban
quality. Therefore, most interested parties agree that Istanbul should make progress in
cultural tourism and use its rich cultural heritage and diversity for this purpose. Recently,
Istanbul was declared Culture Capital of Europe in 2010, and the related projects and funds
represent an opportunity by providing the right combination of culture, tourism and urban
regeneration, and the development of cultural tourism in Istanbul.
Tourism facts: tangible and intangible qualities of Istanbul
In Istanbul, between 1990 and 2000 the number of tourists increased 110 percent, which is
above the general increase rate of Turkey of 93 percent for the same period (TURSAB,
2002). In 2004, the number of foreign tourists visiting Istanbul was only 76 percent that of
Barcelona, 30 percent that of London and 14 percent that of Paris (IMP, 2006). However, this
number rose in more recent years; between 2000 and 2008 the number of foreign visitors
tripled (Table I). Today, although Istanbul is still behind London and Paris, the number of
foreign visitors is nearly the same as that of Barcelona (Table II). The increasing penetration
of low-cost airlines, as well as cruise ships, contribute to the growing arrival numbers.
However, increasing arrivals do not necessarily indicate greater bene?ts fromtourism. Given
the short average length of stay for Istanbul and limited tourism product offerings targeting
Table II Comparison between Istanbul and some other European cities
Istanbul Barcelona Paris London Vienna
Number of visitors/million 6.5
a
7.1
a
27
a
25.4
a
4.2
a
Number of hotels 419
a
236
a
1,466
a
1,639
a
373
a
Number of museums 69
b
51
b
137
b
76
b
100
a
Number of museum visitors-(?rst ten)/million 4.5
a
16
a
55
a
27.7
d
7
a
Number of congresses (national – international) 858
a
713
a
66
e
106
e
115
e
69
e
154
e
Number of theaters 73
b
45
a
138
b
178
b
Occupancy rate (%) 47.79
a
75.50
b
78.4
a
82
a
57.85
a
Average length of stay 2.1
a
3.6
b
2.7
a
6.2
a
2.2
a
Advertising budget-euro/million 0.65
c
10
c
120
c
20
c
27.1
a
Notes:
a
2007;
b
2004;
c
2003 TUYED;
d
2006;
e
2007 ICCA database (only international), Municipality of Barcelona, Statistics Department,
Paris Convention and Visitors Bureau Statistics, London Tourism Of?ce, Vienna Convention Bureau, Turkish Ministry of Culture and
Tourism
Table I Number of arrivals to Istanbul by years
Share in Turkey
Years Istanbul (%)
1995 2,006,413 26
2000 2,420,541 23.21
2001 2,517,139 21.66
2002 2,705,848 20.41
2003 3,148,266 22.44
2004 3,473,185 19.83
2005 4, 849,220 22.96
2006 5,346,681 26.98
2007 6,453,598 27.69
2008* 7,050,748 26.77
Note: *Provisional, Ministry of Culture and Tourism annual statistics
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the different market segments, it is highly unlikely that the average spending of visitors is
increasing at the same rate as the number of arrivals (GWU and BU, 2007).
In general, the number of beds in Istanbul is 79,065 (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007).
Although this number is far behind that of cities like Paris and London, the low occupancy
rates indicate that in fact the bed capacity is not the issue for tourism in Istanbul (Table II).
In order to realize the signi?cance of these numbers, it would be helpful to have an overview
of the main tourism attractions based on the heritage sites, museums, events, arts and
festivals.
In terms of tourism product and target markets, Turkey mainly competes with other similar
Mediterranean destinations. In this context, many regard Istanbul as a gateway to sun and
sea destinations, attracting visitors for an average length of 2.1 days, compared to the
average of six-seven days for coastal destinations. However, leading travel publications
include Istanbul in their lists for Top Ten European City destinations, safest cities in Europe
and top global destinations. On the other hand, the richness and vibrancy of the local
culture, the combination of modernity and elements of ancient histories, the unique location
spanning over two continents, and the praised local cuisine constitute intangible elements
that are part of Istanbul’s competitive advantage (GWU and BU, 2007).
The historical peninsula is the main cultural quarter of Istanbul having a cultural heritage and
tourism infrastructure. The historical peninsula has the highest number of tourist attractions,
such as museums, monuments (Topkap? Palace, Hagia Sophia, the Blue Mosque, and the
Grand Bazaar), while both historical patterns and civil architecture are in this area. The
Emino¨ nu¨ district, which is in this area, includes 40 percent of the total bed capacity of
Istanbul (Figure 1). Out of the 69 museums of Istanbul, 18 are also in this district (IMP, 2006).
Currently, less than 40 percent of international visitors to Istanbul visit museums and
numerous valuable sites suffer fromlack of revenue due to minimal visitation. In contrast with
other places in Turkey, Istanbul has a large number of museums. Coupled with the fact that
cultural heritage tourists are a major target market for Istanbul, the museum visitation of the
tourists ought to be relatively high. However, the current level of museum visitation in the
historic peninsula is low. Istanbul is far behind other European cities in terms of number of
museum visitors. The two most important museums of Istanbul have a total of 3,932,852
visitors every year (2007) (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2008), whereas the Tate Museum
in London attracts 6,412,000 visitors annually (London Tourism Of?ce, 2007).
Another historical site of tourism potential with a high density of culture and art facilities (39
percent) is the Beyog? lu district (IMP, 2006). In addition, various archaeological, historical,
natural and urban conservation areas exist creating different identities of Istanbul located in
various regions. After the declaration of Istanbul as the 2010 European Capital of Culture, the
Ministry of Culture and Tourism announced its support for many regeneration projects that
will take place with collaboration between public-local government and institutions
-NGO’s-educational- art and culture institutions in the mentioned historical quarters (Ministry
of Culture and Tourism, 2009). Therefore, Istanbul’s historical heritage makes the city an
attractive tourismdestination and Istanbul’s recent nomination as the 2010 European Capital
of Culture led to a series of renovation, restoration and demolition projects, complemented
with ?nancial incentives to increase the tangible capacities such as hotel, museums and
other cultural amenities (OECD, 2008).
Among cultural activities, festivals occupy an important place and the ratio of established
festivals with a history of more than ten years is 27 percent (21 in number). Public support for
the festivals is only 3 percent, whereas in Europe public support is on average 30 percent
(IMP, 2006). The number of facilities is increasing for important festivals and various art
activities, especially after the year 2000, and these facilities are more modern and
competitive in capacity and quality. Projects that recently ?nished are important steps in
ensuring quality and diversity of the culture potential of Istanbul. However, these new
projects depend on the restoration of historical structure inventory and hence mostly in the
scale of the buildings. Furthermore, new developments also require new locations, which
also contribute to urban regeneration. The following section examines the existing and
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ongoing regeneration cultural projects, which assist the culture and tourism potentials of
Istanbul mentioned above.
Evaluation of regeneration projects with respect to culture and tourism
Neo-liberal movements have strongly affected Istanbul in de?ning its vision to be a
world-global city. While the interest on cultural heritage increases, especially related to the
UNESCO convention, the aim of attracting more investors created an environment for real
estate developers and consumption-led projects with new and modern complexes in
Istanbul. Figure 2 displays the increasing number of shopping malls, of?ce buildings and
high-standard hotels as the new faces of Istanbul since the 1990s.
The literature on city competitiveness with respect to tourism and culture highlights
restructuring of the cities based on some common cultural regeneration strategies such as
cultural quarters, heritage sites, museums, international events, cultural industries and
?agship projects. This section will evaluate 19 regeneration projects in the Istanbul Master
Plan, with respect to these strategies.
The main reasons for the establishment of The Istanbul Metropolitan Planning and Urban
Design Centre were to draw the vision of Istanbul and to prepare the master plan for future
decades in 2005. Even though the local authority in the Istanbul Metropolitan Area has power
Figure 1 The distribution of number of beds and tourism centers
VOL. 4 NO. 3 2010
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in this process, the importance of the central government regarding planning is still strong,
and the central government takes several top-down decisions, which are made without any
integration to the master plan. If the Ministry of Culture and Tourism declares any area as a
tourism center (see these centers in Figure 1), the Greater or District Municipality plays no
part in the process. These power struggles between the authorities created con?icts and a
fragmented approach towards the spatial development of the metropolitan area. The two
main strategies of the Istanbul Master Plan are to raise the competitiveness and provide
sustainability. Several challenging objectives exist: the conservation of Istanbul’s historical
and cultural heritage, the preservation of Istanbul’s natural resources, the development of
new activities and the enhancement of the diversi?cation of the economy. According to both
the OECD Report (2008) and the Istanbul Master Plan (Istanbul Greater Municipality, 2007),
Istanbul should have a broader perspective regarding its position as a regional and
international center, and should make use of its key qualities in ?nance, logistics, culture,
tourism and innovation. As Gu¨ venc¸ points out, Istanbul has had a global perspective since
the 1990s, and the changing functions and new visions of the city highlight the concept of
urban regeneration and the implementation of big projects with the support of a new legal
framework. However, their fragmented approach draws criticism (Istanbul Chamber of City
Planners, 2007).
Istanbul’s master plan has 19 projects. These are in regeneration areas with different
locations, focus, and functions in the regeneration process (Table III, Figure 3). The projects
come under two main classi?cations, Cultural Heritage Projects and Flagship Projects, in
order to emphasize the overall policy and various implementations of the policy in cultural
heritage sites and re-development areas for new and modern functions and complexes.
Therefore, there is an evaluation of two projects as cases of heritagization, and two projects
as ?agships with the following criteria: visions, goals, focus, existing and proposed
functions, decision and implementation process, actors, critics and the possible impact of
the projects. Location, functions and focus gave the classi?cation parameters for the
projects in order to see the typologies of culture-led regeneration in Istanbul (Table III).
Cultural heritage projects
In the concept of Istanbul Master Plan, the Historical Peninsula, as the heart of cultural
heritage and the magnet for visitors, has several projects such as The Historical Peninsula
Heritage Management Plan, The City Wall Conservation Master Plan, The Theodosius
Harbor Planning Project, The Fener-Balat Regeneration Project and The Museum City
Project as cases of heritagization. UNESCO included Istanbul in its convention concerning
Figure 2 Number of hotels, shopping malls, and of?ce buildings in Istanbul by years
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the protection of the world’s cultural and natural heritage in 1985. The occasional threats
from UNESCO to exclude Istanbul from the convention rise signi?cant concern.
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality has a Museum City Project that aims to prevent the risk of
the historical peninsula losing its place on the World Heritage List. Initial studies of the
project, which is exclusively focusing on the historical quarter, date back to 2004 and studies
into legal instruments and implementation procedures continue. In the scope of the project
the historical urban patterns of Istanbul, especially in areas like the Historical peninsula, the
Golden Horn and the Beyog? lu quarter, undergo regeneration, including the people living in
those areas, and the objective is for them to become places that re?ect their richness and
historical characteristics. Part of the project is the determination of pilot areas, and in these
areas regeneration implementations take place concurrently with socio-economic projects.
One of the gravest critiques is that ‘‘it sees the history of a world city like Istanbul as an object
exhibited in a museum’’ (Yap? Journal, 2006). While the intensity of restoration activities with
the fabric scale attracts attention, the process does not have a comprehensive approach.
No detailed explanations exist in terms of means and resources of implementation, for the
proposed functions in the project areas. Additionally, another controversial point is that the
large scale of the project area and scope makes constructing a coherent structure harder for
sub-designs and renovation projects.
One of the several projects being implemented in the historical peninsula is the Fener-Balat
Regeneration Project. The undertaking, which refers to two neighborhoods that run along
one side of the Golden Horn, started in 1997 with a joint intervention between the Fatih
District Municipality, UNESCO and the European Union. Fener was mostly home to Greek
people, while Balat was the main Jewish district during the Ottoman period. After the
departure of the original residents, the neighborhoods became the major arrival points for
the migrants from Anatolia during the ?rst half of the twentieth century (Bezmez, 2008; Narl?,
1997). In the 1980s the interventions of Dalan, the mayor of Istanbul, to clean up the
industrial areas broke the existing social and economic networks within the region, and
therefore the area became poverty-stricken, with a lack of infrastructure and unhealthy
conditions. The aim of the current project is the conservation of the cultural heritage and the
Figure 3 Distribution of regeneration projects in Istanbul Metropolitan Area
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increase in the living standard of the current residents, while the promotion of tourism, based
on the idea of emphasizing Fener and Balat’s historic heritage, seems like a viable choice
(Bezmez, 2008). But the implementation of the project is taking a long time. This is due to
different reasons, although the most signi?cant ones are the mistrust of the residents
towards the project, the number of property owners interested in preserving their investment,
and the changes already made by the residents to the original buildings.
Flagship projects
The Halic¸ Cultural Valley is a ?agship project which includes cultural centers and museums.
Halic¸ is located on both sides of the Golden Horn as part of the Historical Peninsula, and
transformation actually started in the mid 1980s as a top-down initiative (Bezmez, 2008).
With its 16 km long coast, the Golden Horn was historically a main industrial and shipyard
area, but the plan is to make Halic¸ into a cultural valley. The ‘‘Cultural Valley’’ project is
dealing with the re?nement of the coasts and surroundings of the Golden Horn, regaining its
vitality with its historical and natural values. Along the coast of the Golden Horn (Halic¸ ) a
number of regeneration projects continue, most of them giving the old buildings new
functions. The Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources handed Silahtaraga Power Plant,
which was the ?rst power plant built during Ottoman Empire times, to Istanbul Bilgi University
in 2004. The power plant is now a university campus, and has museums, like the Museum of
Modern Art and the Energy Museum, within the facility. The Rahmi Koc Museum of Industry
stands upon the foundations of a twelfth century Byzantium building and now the facility is
one of the most modern museums of Istanbul. The museum is not a pro?t-oriented initiative;
rather it is a prestige investment for the one of the biggest companies in Turkey (Bezmez,
2008). The municipality manages the Feshane Cultural Center in a renovated old textile
factory constructed in 1839, but it remains unnoticed by most of the residents (Bezmez,
2008). Furthermore, in the same area is nowan open-air museum, Miniaturk. A renovated old
slaughterhouse is nowthe Sutluce Cultural Center, which opened in 2009 for the World Water
Forum. When all these projects are completed, many expect that Halic¸ will be one of the
most important areas to serve cultural tourism in the city. However, there have been critics of
the process ever since the Halic¸ emerged as a large empty land area after the
de-industrialization process in the 1980s. The objective is to internationalize Istanbul,
although public initiatives to manage the process remain weak. Moreover, Bezmez (2008)
points out that most of the residents still perceive Halic¸ as a place of deterioration and
isolation, and de?nes the area as including mostly local oriented projects, rather than what
was promised.
The Kartal Regeneration Project is also a ?agship project on the Eastern side of Istanbul. The
area used to be an old industrial district and the transformation started spontaneously. Great
imbalances exist between the Eastern and Western sides of Istanbul in terms of distribution
of commerce, industry, culture and administration functions. Central Business Districts,
especially, are mainly on the Western side of Istanbul. This inequality not only exerts
pressure on the natural and historical fabric of the city, but unequal distribution of economic
functions also creates problems in transportation. In this sense, within the metropolitan plan,
the aim of the project in Kartal is to offset this imbalance and allow Kartal to gain more
importance as the area creates an alternative in the Eastern side to the current Central
Business Districts. There was an international competition for the Kartal regeneration
project, and the design of famous architect Zaha Hadid won the prize. This area will have a
privileged high density, while the Mayor pronounced Kartal the ‘‘Manhattan of Istanbul’’. The
project area is one of the largest urban regeneration areas in the world in terms of size,
number of of?ces, limited number of residences, cultural center, opera house, recreation
areas along the lake, public buildings, shopping mall, hotels, restaurants and marina.
However, critiques suggest that 60 percent of the planned construction in the scope of the
project is commercial area. Considering the scarcity of A grade of?ce space in Istanbul,
Kartal will have twice as many of?ces as the current supply of Istanbul (Erso¨ z, 2008). The
discussion questions whether these new of?ces are usable or necessary. Other criticisms
also exist about the density that will increase with the project, and the project’s adaptability to
the surroundings.
VOL. 4 NO. 3 2010
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Other projects differ according to their location and focuses (Table III, Figure 3). Since most
of these projects are still in the decision process rather than in the implementation phase, it is
preferable to indicate the diversi?cation and typologies of these regeneration projects. While
some of them are Central Business District (CBD) integrated projects including the
transformation of industrial areas to extend to the CBDby highlighting cultural industries, two
of them, which are at the main gates of the city as the harbor and/or customs area, are
mega-waterfront development projects in the central part. Several regeneration projects
also exist in the Istanbul Master Plan which aims to design and develop the periphery in an
organized manner. The second and third rings include two Hosting Events Projects, while
four of themare peripheral recreation and tourismcenters on the two sides of Istanbul. These
projects would address the long term challenge to create not only new economic activities
but also new visitor attraction areas within the city, rather than concentrating only on the
historical peninsula.
Conclusion
This paper evaluates how culture is used in the regeneration process with respect to cultural
tourism in Istanbul. Recently, the changing structure of cities has enhanced the signi?cance
of cultural tourism, both for raising their cultural heritage and for developing new activities
and areas for attracting visitors. This makes cities more competitive by creating landmarks in
the city and giving importance to creative and cultural industries as new economic activities
and attractions which are complementary to the heritage sites.
Istanbul, in de?ning its role of being a global city, and as being the heart of economic and
cultural activities of Turkey, needs to emphasize its vitality. With these challenging objectives,
restructuring the city has several dimensions, such as conserving cultural and natural sites,
sustainability, increasing quality of life, economic development and diversi?cation.
Therefore, the regeneration activities have become more and more signi?cant with their
focuses and processes. The analysis of regeneration projects in Istanbul indicates that
culture and tourism are included as major activities. However, their focus and dominance
changes, as culture and tourismbecome important components to increase the quality of life
in the city and attract more visitors. Except for the heritage sites, most of the projects are
developing based on a consumption-led approach, with the goal of economic and property
development. The contents of the projects follow world experiences and are classi?ed with
respect to different cultural regeneration strategies. Moreover, their focus is much more on
creating ‘‘?agships’’ as prestige areas of the city, and a citadel of spectacle for city users.
The criticisms of ongoing projects are that they are fragmented, the scale of privileged
densities, the dominance of commercial areas, the ignoring of the impacts on surrounding
areas and the people who live in those areas, and that these create issues of gentri?cation
and social exclusion and neglect the concept of public interest.
However, it is quite early to evaluate the impacts of these projects on cultural tourism and
urban development, and to see whether they have brought a diversi?cation of the economy,
an enhancement of the tourism infrastructure, a raise in the number of visitors and revenues,
and an increase in the quality of life in Istanbul. These bene?ts may be achieved if the
governing bodies manage projects by considering the criticisms mentioned above and by
emphasizing the uniqueness of Istanbul rather than increased homogenization.
References
Amin, A. (2007), ‘‘Cultural-economy and cities’’, Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 31 No. 2,
pp. 143-61.
Bayliss, D. (2004), ‘‘Denmark’s creative potential: the role of culture within Danish urban development
strategies’’, International Journal of Cultural Policy, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 5-28.
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About the authors
Ferhan Gezici is an associate professor in the Department of Urban and Regional Planning,
ITU Faculty of Architecture. Her research interests include tourism and regional
development, urban tourism, tourism and environment, tourism planning, tourism impacts,
and coastal development. She lectures on tourism and the environment, tourism and
regional development. Ferhan Gezici is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
[email protected]
Ebru Kerimoglu is an assistant professor in the Department of Urban and Regional Planning,
ITU Faculty of Architecture. Her research interests are urban tourism, tourism planning and
policies, tourism and regional development.
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