Description
The purpose of this paper is to extend the concept of green brands to destinations and to
examine the application and limitations of green destination brands for nations adopting this positioning
strategy.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Conceptualization and anatomy of green destination brands
Andrea Insch
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Andrea Insch, (2011),"Conceptualization and anatomy of green destination brands", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
Research, Vol. 5 Iss 3 pp. 282 - 290
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Ana María Munar, (2011),"Tourist-created content: rethinking destination branding", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
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Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan, Ramzi Nekhili, Clifford Lewis, (2011),"Destination brand components", International J ournal of Culture,
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Saila Saraniemi, (2011),"From destination image building to identity-based branding", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and
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Conceptualization and anatomy of green
destination brands
Andrea Insch
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to extend the concept of green brands to destinations and to
examine the application and limitations of green destination brands for nations adopting this positioning
strategy.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper identi?es characteristics of green destination brands,
drawing on established concepts in corporate branding, destination branding and green marketing. The
paper demonstrates the application and limitations of the concept through an in-depth case study
analysis of New Zealand’s destination brand to explain the possibilities and problems of building green
destination brands at a national level.
Findings – The ?ndings suggest that a holistic, strategic approach to building a green destination
brand which emphasizes and quali?es the green essence of a nation’s brand is required to avoid the
pitfalls, cynicism and criticisms of greenwashing.
Research limitations/implications – The research ?ndings are embedded in the context studied –
New Zealand’s destination brand. Additional case studies at multiple levels – nations, regions, cities –
would offer a rich database to gain a better understanding of the concept and the implications of green
destination branding.
Practical implications – Barriers to executing a credible green destination brand position are identi?ed
and the implications for destination marketing organizations and their stakeholders are discussed.
Originality/value – A conceptualization of green destination brands is provided and the application
and limitations of the concept are demonstrated through an in-depth case study of a nation that has
adopted this positioning strategy. Rather than taking a snapshot research approach, a historical
perspective enabled the development of the destination’s brand positioning strategy to be captured.
Keywords Destination branding, Green marketing, Conceptual development, Case studies,
New Zealand
Paper type Conceptual paper
Introduction
Eco-tourism is not a new phenomenon. Nature-based tourism has a long tradition (Ousby,
2002). Modern forms of eco-tourismbecame popular in the 1980s but can be traced back to
the wildlife conservation reserves in Kenya opening to tourists in the 1960s (Honey, 2009).
Academic study of eco-tourism has grown steadily over the past two decades
(Jayawardena et al., 2008). Enthusiasm for the issue re?ects the segment’s buoyancy
over the past 20 years (Mastny, 2001, The International Ecotourism Society, 2006) and
greater consensus on the meaning of key concepts (Horobin, 1996). A destination’s
environment, often a core component of its image, is a key factor motivating tourists’
destination choice and loyalty (Meng and Uysal, 2008; Hosany et al., 2006).
With rising concern over the impacts of global warming, there is a danger that tourism
operators and destination marketing organizations (DMOs) will exaggerate their
eco-credentials. Even though steps to improve environmental management and
accountability are positive, destination brands may suffer from inconsistency in
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VOL. 5 NO. 3 2011, pp. 282-290, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/17506181111156970
Andrea Insch is a Senior
Lecturer in the Marketing
Department, University of
Otago, Otago,
New Zealand.
Received: June 2009
Revised: June 2010
Accepted: June 2010
The author wishes to
acknowledge the assistance of
Ron Cuthbert and Magdalena
Florek for their useful
comments.
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approaches which create con?icting messages. As some players jump on the green
bandwagon, their actions might do more harm than good to the green image of destination
brands. Despite a surge in reported green practices and accreditation, little is known about
howthe concept applies to destination brands. An immediate issue arising fromthe notion of
a green destination brand is whether it encourages or erodes the environmental, economic
and social capital the brand embodies.
The idea and importance of green destination brands holds greater salience for tourism
dependent nations like Costa Rica and Kenya. In addition, destinations with focal natural
attractions and strong environmental associations cannot afford to neglect or damage this
dimension of their brand image. Conversely, over-emphasis of a country brand’s green factor
due to the appeal of its physical environment might con?ict with efforts to reposition the
brand’s image. Cultivation and protection of a positive green destination image is inherently
problematic, albeit alluring. Despite strong interest in green brands in the context of tourism,
application to destinations is poorly understood and lacking a formal de?nition. Therefore, the
purpose of this paper is to extend the concept of a green brand to destinations. To achieve this
goal, the study ?rst reviews insights from corporate and destination branding, and green
marketing. To understand the application and limitations of the concept, the study analyzes
New Zealand’s brand to provide an anatomy of a green destination brand.
Conceptualizing green destination brands
A nation’s natural assets, properly managed, provide a powerful source of emotional and
symbolic value for internal and external audiences. Furthermore, countries that promote the
philosophies, values and practices of environmental sustainability, rather than simply
showcasing the natural beauty of their landscapes, might develop a positive, sustainable
basis of reputational advantage. Even though these and other gains from nation branding to
enhance a country’s competitive advantage are widely accepted, the conceptual and
empirical basis of nation branding is in its infancy (de Chernatony, 2008). A fundamental
divide exists over whether nations can and should be branded (e.g. Anholdt, 2006;
Blichfeld, 2005). Furthermore, unlike corporate brand management, there are no set
guidelines on how to defend and build nation brand equity (Florek and Insch, 2008).
Papadopolous and Heslop (2002) argue that a feature distinguishing nation brands from
traditional brands is that they ‘‘are not directly under marketer’s control.’’ Furthermore, unlike
commercial products, a country is a public domain. ‘‘Place brands incorporate no clear
ownership and hence lack of ownership delimits possibilities for brand management’’
(Blichfeld, 2005, p. 399). Despite the dif?culties, a number of countries implement
destination branding strategies to boost economic growth and improve residents’ standard
of living. Ultimately, the goal of nation and destination branding should be to create a unique,
sustainable position for the destination in consumers’ minds. As de Chernatony and
McDonald (1998, p. 20) argue, a brand’s success results from ‘‘being able to sustain added
values in the face of competition.’’ It is the unique combination of values, related to a
country’s assets, which offer differentiation for the country brand and relevance to target
audiences (de Chernatony, 2008). However, it is often dif?cult to capture the diversity and
complexity of a nation in a single positioning statement that will appeal to different
stakeholder groups. Consequently, countries might fall into the trap of trying to be everything
to everyone and not communicating anything distinctive or unique.
Whether a green position offers destinations the opportunity to differentiate their brand has not
received much attention in the literature. Organizations and individuals in the tourism industry
might invest in building a green destination brand if they perceive it will enhance brand image,
preference and loyalty. Like other associations, environmental or green associations must be
authentic, convincing and offer a point of difference from rival destinations (Cai, 2001).
Brands able to classi?able as green are those whose users’ primary associations are
environmental conservation and sustainable practices. Of the few studies that examine the
nature of green brands, Hartmann, Apaolaza Ibanez, & Forcada Sainz (2005, p. 10)
characterize a green brand identity as having ‘‘a speci?c set of brand attributes and bene?ts
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related to the reduced environmental impact of the brand and its perception as being
environmentally sound.’’ The vagueness of environmentally sound behaviors re?ects the
loose de?nition of a green brand. Consequently, organizations that highlight their
environmental stewardship are often accused of greenwashing (akin to the notion of
whitewashing), due to the dif?culties in verifying their environmental credentials. Consumer
skepticism and criticism of greenwashing practices has compounded resistance to support
green brands (Rex and Baumann, 2007).
Their focus on green values is a distinguishing feature of green brands. This accords with
brand strength deriving from clearly de?ned identity (Keller, 2003) and focus on one brand
essence (Aaker and Joachimsthaler, 2000) that appeals to users (First and Khetriwal, 2008).
Effective green positioning involves brand communication and differentiation based on
functional attributes and emotional bene?ts (Hartmann et al., 2005). Like green product
brands, green destination brands must consider the limits of traditional eco-labeling
systems that summarize technical information (Rex and Baumann, 2007). Eco-labels might
add credibility to green brands, but are unlikely to actively communicate the array of
functional and emotional bene?ts consumers, other than the greenest, seek.
Eco-destinations and green destination brands are not synonymous. Others might perceive a
destination as having a green brand even though it does not feature or promote eco-tourist
attractions or resorts. Alternatively, eco-tourists might represent a large slice of a destination’s
market, but these tourists do not perceive it as a green brand. On the other hand, eco-tourism
and green destination brands might be mutually reinforcing. Thus, the multitude of tourist
operators, resorts, activities, attractions, supporting services and infrastructure, residents and
tourists at the destination each support or detract from the ambitions of a green destination
brand. For example, in the Asia-Paci?c, New Zealand rates high as a green nation, yet none of
its cities is perceived as having a green brand. This contrasts with Sweden, a nation seen as a
green destination brand, and is home to a green city, Malmo. On the other hand, critics
recognize Quicksilver, an Australian tourism operator, as committed to conserving the Great
Barrier Reef, a World Heritage site (Honey, 2003). Yet, Australia does not rank highly based on
its environmental record as a country, nor is noted as a host to green cities.
To overcome the amorphousness of green brands that can lead to criticism, certi?cation
systems (among others) offer the structure to reinforce green brands. Examples in the
tourism industry include Costa Rica’s Certi?cate for Sustainable Tourism (CST) and
Australia’s Nature and Ecotourism Accreditation Program (NEAP) certi?cation schemes, as
well as the well established ISO14001 EMS accreditation system (Honey, 2003). In addition,
a number of indicators and indexes of countries’ and cities’ environmental performance exist
to benchmark destinations eco- credentials. Widely published and referenced measures
include, but are not limited to: the National Geographic Society’s Greendex, the
Environmental Performance Index and the Environmental Sustainability Index.
Despite the spurt in interest in eco-tourism and sustainable tourism development, research
in green destination marketing and branding is limited. Walker and Hanson (1998) compare
destinations to traditional products and services through a taxonomy of green marketing
differences. They argue that even though destinations share a number of common motives
with product and service brands for engaging in green marketing – quality of life,
socio-economic impacts, waste disposal and pollution management and customers’
attitudes and behaviors – there are several notable differences. Destinations are distinct
from the other categories, as the marketer does not directly consume the natural resource.
They are stakeholder and steward rather than a user. In addition, destination marketers have
limited or no control over visitors’ experiences and have little capacity to expand the
destinations’ portfolio. In contrast to green product marketing, tourists do not take ownership
of the destination, yet are often important environmental stakeholders charged with
protecting the destinations’ assets. Unlike goods and services marketing, destination
marketers face the added dilemma of pricing their offerings at a rate that will attract tourists,
but not incur costs (or at least minimal) to the natural environment. Destination marketers
also face the challenge of satisfying the needs and welfare of multiple stakeholders –
visitors, residents, and the natural environment (Walker and Hanson, 1998).
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The focus of green tourism marketing is on pro?ling green or nature-based tourists
(e.g. Meng and Uysal, 2008). This mirrors the general state of green marketing. As Rex and
Baumann (2007, p. 569) observe, ‘‘most efforts have been related to the characteristics of
individuals, in terms of green consumers, howmany there are, howto identify them, and how
they behave.’’ According to First and Khetriwal (2008, p. 3), ‘‘the concept of green branding
is almost unexplored. Much more attention has been given to green marketing and green
communication.’’ In parallel, the concept of a green destination brand is also limited in its
conceptual development.
Methodology
This study adopts an in-depth case study of New Zealand’s destination brand to explore the
application of the green brand concept to the destination context. New Zealand serves as a
critical case to examine due to the global recognition of its natural environment as a major
attraction for tourists. Since building and maintaining a brand is a long-term commitment, an
historical case study approach is the most suitable methodology. This contrasts with prior
studies that take a snapshot approach. In this study, the evidence was collected to capture the
development of the destination’s brand identity and perceptions over time, since ‘‘historical
phenomena can be rich and complex and that they can best be understood by investigating
the time(s), place(s), and context(s) in which they arise and develop’’ (Low and Fullerton,
1994, p. 174). The fundamental objective of historical research is to establish accurate
accounts of social phenomenon through a careful consideration of all relevant available data.
The potential for biases that may taint analysis and interpretation of historical data is always
present. To minimize this potential data triangulation, comparing the different primary and
secondary sources, substantiated facts where possible. Informal interviews with a range of
participants representing various segments of the national tourism industry – government
agencies and departments, regional tourism organizations, major airlines and operators –
served to verify and supplement the archival sources to achieve data triangulation. The paper
then discusses key events in the construction of the brand and provides supporting evidence
to illustrate and substantiate the interpretation of important facts.
Findings
New Zealand is a youthful, new nation dependent on international tourism among its other
resource-intensive industries (i.e. dairy, meat, horticulture). Earnings fromtourism contribute
approximately 10 percent of GNP (Anon, 2008). Yet, New Zealand represents a fraction of
the international travel and tourism market and competes for 30 percent of the market
against about 90 other countries (Morgan and Pritchard, 2002). Such dependency is
unhealthy given the increasing susceptibility of tourism to economic and political risk,
environmental crises and price competition. Much of the allure of visiting and exploring New
Zealand is due to its remoteness, low population density and isolation. Ironically, these
features are also among the greatest obstacles facing the country’s tourism industry.
Since its colonial development, New Zealand’s pristine environment and unique landscape –
a scenic wonderland – have featured prominently in its tourist promotions (Bell, 2008).
Subsequent marketing campaigns capitalize on the recognition gained through the movie Lord
of the Rings, which put New Zealand on the mass market tourismmap. While the positioning of
‘‘clean and green’’ might be considered a recent move, these values can be linked to national
identity since the 1970s (Bell, 1996). New Zealand gained attention for its stance against
nuclear energy and genetically modi?ed organisms in the 1980s. One of the country’s leading
beer brands – Steinlarger Pure – emphasizes the country’s nuclear-free status in its brand
identity and supporting marketing communications. New Zealand food manufacturers,
particularly in the dairy and meat product categories, also link the quality of their produce to the
country’s clean, green image, but without an understanding of the potential risks of green
positioning or the ?nancial outcomes of their investments (Insch and Florek, 2009).
New Zealand’s positioning as a green country continues unabated. Launch of the much
celebrated ‘‘100% pure campaign’’ in 1999 cemented this position. The country’s (and one
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of the world’s) longest-running tourismcampaign built on the original values and images, but
with less clutter. The environment has been elevated as the core component of the brand. In
particular, the visual representation of the concept, the fernmark logo, features prominently
and takes a more pervasive role in the destination’s brand communications (Tourism New
Zealand, 2003). First registered as a trademark in 1991, the fernmark concept derived from
research of international visitors’ perception of New Zealand’s personality – unaffected,
honest and open; young, active, fresh; not knowing the meaning of cannot do; resolute; quiet
achievers; and seeking contemporary solutions (Masterton, 1992).
In November 1999, at a cost of $17000, the New Zealand government introduced a
redesigned black and white fern logo. The complementary tourism slogan and logo
‘‘100% pure’’ developed by M&C Saatchi was capable of being adapted to a range of
contexts – 100 percent pure experience, 100 percent pure exhilaration, 100 percent pure
brilliance. In addition to forming the basis of the Tourism New Zealand’s promotional
messages in international markets, the campaign had also established standards for
tourism services (Florek and Insch, 2008). In July 2002, Tourism New Zealand launched a
new logo for their tourist operators’ quality assurance scheme (QA), Qualmarkw, using the
same stylized silver fern used in international tourismmarketing. The silver fernmark links QA
with the Visitor Information Network, creating a recognizable and uni?ed brand for all visitors.
Six years later, the Qualmarkwscheme expanded to audit tourism operators’ environmental
sustainability under the ‘‘Go for Gold’’ initiative. The additional criteria requires
Qualmark-licensed operators to meet minimum standards for environmental performance,
covering areas including: energy ef?ciency, water conservation, greater use of recycling,
waste reduction, improved fuel use and higher levels of involvement in local conservation
activities. Accredited operators with advanced environmental systems can achieve higher
enviro-gold, enviro-silver and enviro-bronze rankings under the scheme. According to
Tourism New Zealand (2008, p. 6), this initiative successfully launched ‘‘as a result of the
industry’s commitment to sustainability through the New Zealand Tourism Strategy’’.
Launched in May 2008, it is dif?cult to evaluate its effectiveness or contribution to the
authority’s goal of environmental enhancement and protection. New Zealand’s latest Tourism
Strategy enshrines the aim of environmental leadership. As part of this strategy, it aims to be
a carbon neutral destination by 2015 (Tourism New Zealand, 2007). Meanwhile, the nation
aspires to achieve this status in 2020, with zero net carbon emissions across all sectors of
the economy (Anon, 2007). The lag between promoting the destination’s position and
introducing the necessary QA standards echoes in the words of the New Zealand Tourism
Minister, Mr Damien O’Connor, ‘‘The 100 percent Pure New Zealand brand has positioned
New Zealand on the world stage in terms of its environmental standards. It has become a
promise and an aspirational goal’’ (quoted in Milne, 2008, p. 7).
NewZealand’s brand position aims to attract tourists seeking nature-based experiences and
eco-tourism activities. This segment, named the Interactive Travellerw, travel often, are
active participants in a range of activities, especially in the natural environment, are
environmentally and culturally aware and want to share authentic and new experiences with
others (Tourism New Zealand, 2008). To raise awareness of the country as a destination
among this segment, several consecutive advertising campaigns depict the country’s
stunning and varied landscapes. A Maori culture and heritage dimension added to the
singular environmental focus of the brand, to differentiate its identity from rival destinations
such as Canada, Australia, Sweden and Switzerland.
To reach the Interactive Travellerw, DMOs and independent tourist operators use a variety of
media, with online communication prominent in the marketing communications mix. A study
by Bell (2008) indicates that almost 25 percent of all internet sites advertising eco-tourism
explicitly mention New Zealand. The country also has the largest number of Green Globe 21
accredited businesses in the world (Natural Capital, 2004) and the town of Kaikora achieved
this status (Tourism New Zealand, 2007). Yet, New Zealand’s tourism industry has been slow
to encourage environmental accreditation as part of the Qualmarkw scheme.
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The success of Tourism New Zealand’s campaigns, based on a strong environmental
positioning, is evident in valuations of New Zealand’s destination brand. In 2005, Interbrand
valued New Zealand’s tourism brand as worth US$13.6bn (Interbrand, 2005). In addition,
BrandFinance estimated the value of brand New Zealand as US$102bn (Anholt-GMI, 2005).
In the same year, 100 percent pure was named the tenth best tourism brand in the world in
the Anholt-GMI nations brand index (Anholt-GMI, 2005). Visitor numbers have risen by 50
percent to 2.4 million annually and tourism export earnings have doubled to $5.9 billion per
annum (Tourism New Zealand, 2008). An earlier study attempted to place a value on the
image of New Zealand’s clean green image. The Ministry for the Environment (2001)
estimated that the country would lose about NZ$938 million in revenue from its ?ve inbound
tourist markets (Australia, Korea, the US and UK, and Japan) if tourists’ perceptions of the
environment worsened. International visitors originating from these markets were shown
images representing a clean green New Zealand, and images portraying New Zealand with
a degraded environment. The research also revealed that tourists’ perceptions of the
environment would affect their intended length of stay. Results varied between countries. On
average Australian tourists would cut short their length of stay by 48 percent, compared to
79 percent for Japanese tourists.
Dif?culties in accurately measuring the monetary value derived from a positive environmental
image abound. However, there are threats to the sanctity of New Zealand’s environment and
tourists’ perceptions that it delivers on this brand promise. Some of the most urgent
environmental challenges facing the nation include poor and deteriorating air quality
(particularly in the two major gateways to NewZealand – Auckland and Christchurch), erosion
and the visual impact of some land-use practices on landscapes, degraded freshwater quality
(especially from intensive agriculture) and marine environments in estuaries and harbors
located near main population centers (Ministry for the Environment, 2001).
Like other isolated and distant destinations, mounting concern among environmentally
conscious consumers over the impact of carbon emissions linked to tourism also threatens
New Zealand. Similar to the green miles dilemma for food imports, opinion leaders in key
markets (especially the UK and Germany) are questioning the environmental and ethical
basis of long-haul travel (Tourism New Zealand, 2007). Even though the impacts of this
movement have are not yet quanti?ed, the industry recognizes the need to focus on niche
markets, more able to offset their related carbon emissions. There is also a growing
awareness of the need to account for carbon emissions and demonstrate environmental
responsibility through carbon offsetting programs. For example, Christchurch International
Airport is the second airport in the world to achieve carbon neutral status through a national
accreditation scheme, carboNZero (Anon, 2008).
A positive indicator of New Zealand’s environmental performance that adds credibility is
ranking seventh in the 2008 Environmental Performance Index. However, despite these
broad metrics of a strong green destination brand, there is contradictory evidence to
undermine and erode its image. Bell’s (2008) examination of New Zealand backpacker
hostel operators revealed a signi?cant gap between New Zealand’s green brand promises
and the systems and services that form part of the delivery process. There is also growing
unease about the country’s environmental concern and authenticity. In 2006, the World Wide
Fund for Nature reported New Zealand as one of the ten worst countries in the world for
consumer demand for natural resources In addition, limited evidence of domestic
consumers’ perceptions New Zealand’s positive environmental credentials indicates
skepticism. A survey of New Zealanders found that 42 percent thought that the clean
green concept was a myth, despite the wide recognition the concept has within New
Zealand (Gendall et al., 2001).
Growth in climate change based tourism, including Antarctic icebergs as a new tourist
attraction, is creating an unfortunate irony and associated demand for transport. New
Zealand, like other countries, also faces criticism over its inability to meet Kyoto Protocol
targets for reducing carbon emissions. By 2003, its emissions had increased by 22 percent
(Pollock, 2008). Two years later, greenhouse gas emissions increased by 24.7 percent
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compared to 1990 levels (Ministry for the Environment, 2008). Many now parody the
‘‘100% pure’’ campaign.
Collectively, these signals threaten to undermine New Zealand’s ‘‘clean, green’’ position. In
addition, as the general manager of tourism services at New Zealand Automobile
Association, Peter Blackwell notes, ‘‘The competition for global dollars and leisure
experiences is extreme and if you look at the core values of what New Zealand is, which is
clean and green . . . Peru, Chile, Costa Rica, Vietnam – they all can ?t into that category of
new competitive environments around the world’’ (quoted in Hembry, 2006).
Conclusion
Creative leveraging of awe-inspiring landscapes depicted in ?lm has crystallized New
Zealand’s ambitions to build a green destination brand. However, such ardent positioning
presents multiple dilemmas for DMOs. Particular challenges in creating a unique and
sustainable green destination brand relate to the major differences between destination
brands and traditional product and service brands. Of these, perhaps the most complex is
enabling all stakeholders to act as stewards of the assets of the brand – the natural
environment they choose to experience. Each stakeholder group – visitors, operators,
residents, promoters – differ in their motives for supporting a green destination brand and
acting out their environmental commitment. Divergence of interests makes a green
destination brand almost impossible to protect from harm. Like all destination brands,
ownership is distributed, meaning that the integrity of the brand is dif?cult, if not impossible,
to protect or control. In spite of this major barrier, the allure of green destination brands
remains and many destinations, like New Zealand, purposefully construct their brand
identity on this basis. Although, from the case analysis, it appears that the greatest obstacle
to overcome greenwashing is consistently delivering this promise to an environmentally
savvy and discerning market. The consequences of contaminating a green brand image by
word-of-mouth and social media platforms can be severe as others learn and complain
about, recommend or discourage others to visit.
Bell (2008) argues that top-down and bottom-up approaches to building green destination
brands must work synergistically. Choosing the right incentives (sanctions versus reward) to
encourage consistent environmental messages and practices (image versus reality) might
represent the greatest barrier to green destination brands. For example, it is unknown whether
tourism operators would be more likely to respond to penalties for inappropriate behavior or
act proactively through pride for their natural surroundings. Evidence suggests that sectors of
the industry with the most to lose and prove (i.e. transport) have taken steps to maximize their
environmental credibility through carbon reduction and offsetting measures. Whether they
acted proactively to pre-empt a consumer backlash is unclear. Other operators
enthusiastically embrace the green umbrella brand as mutually reinforcing the positioning
of their brands. At the same time, threats to NewZealand’s country brand could taint the image
of New Zealand’s destination brand and those of individual tourism services providers.
The New Zealand experience suggests that sequencing is vital in this process of setting
expectations and ensuring systems are in place to meet them. The wisdom of promotional
campaigns with an emphasis on the natural environment preceding a universal system of
substantiating and protecting its environmental positioning is questionable. An even greater
dilemma is ensuring that residents protect the integrity of the brand, especially populations
which do not strive to minimize or mitigate their negative environmental impacts. Travelers
observe unfavorable behaviors and take note of where and how a destination’s
environmental standards and regulations are less stringent than at home.
This ?rst step to understand the nature of green destination brands raises as many, if not
more, questions than it aimed to answer. The study suggests additional in-depth analysis of
individual tourism operators’ approaches and perceptions to better understand the barriers
and enablers to build strong, credible green destination brands. On the other hand,
research could uncover travelers’ attitudes to perceptions of destinations that strive to build
an identity based primarily on their positive environmental values and behaviors. From this
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perspective, it might be possible to assess whether destinations can achieve a
differentiated, sustainable brand positioning strategy based on their greenness and
whether travelers view destinations’ greenness with credence. This is imperative, given
similar ambitions of nations to reduce their carbon emissions and achieve carbon neutral
status (among other admirable environmental goals). Like the thin literature on green
marketing and branding, there is a need for more work to identify the most effective and
credible ways of communicating green destination brand essence to receptive audiences.
Additional case studies, at multiple levels – nations, regions, cities, resorts – would serve as
an appropriate tool for comparison, to gain a deeper understanding of the concept, anatomy
and implications of building and protecting green destination brands.
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Corresponding author
Andrea Insch can be contacted at: [email protected]
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This article has been cited by:
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[CrossRef]
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doc_279765938.pdf
The purpose of this paper is to extend the concept of green brands to destinations and to
examine the application and limitations of green destination brands for nations adopting this positioning
strategy.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Conceptualization and anatomy of green destination brands
Andrea Insch
Article information:
To cite this document:
Andrea Insch, (2011),"Conceptualization and anatomy of green destination brands", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
Research, Vol. 5 Iss 3 pp. 282 - 290
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Conceptualization and anatomy of green
destination brands
Andrea Insch
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to extend the concept of green brands to destinations and to
examine the application and limitations of green destination brands for nations adopting this positioning
strategy.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper identi?es characteristics of green destination brands,
drawing on established concepts in corporate branding, destination branding and green marketing. The
paper demonstrates the application and limitations of the concept through an in-depth case study
analysis of New Zealand’s destination brand to explain the possibilities and problems of building green
destination brands at a national level.
Findings – The ?ndings suggest that a holistic, strategic approach to building a green destination
brand which emphasizes and quali?es the green essence of a nation’s brand is required to avoid the
pitfalls, cynicism and criticisms of greenwashing.
Research limitations/implications – The research ?ndings are embedded in the context studied –
New Zealand’s destination brand. Additional case studies at multiple levels – nations, regions, cities –
would offer a rich database to gain a better understanding of the concept and the implications of green
destination branding.
Practical implications – Barriers to executing a credible green destination brand position are identi?ed
and the implications for destination marketing organizations and their stakeholders are discussed.
Originality/value – A conceptualization of green destination brands is provided and the application
and limitations of the concept are demonstrated through an in-depth case study of a nation that has
adopted this positioning strategy. Rather than taking a snapshot research approach, a historical
perspective enabled the development of the destination’s brand positioning strategy to be captured.
Keywords Destination branding, Green marketing, Conceptual development, Case studies,
New Zealand
Paper type Conceptual paper
Introduction
Eco-tourism is not a new phenomenon. Nature-based tourism has a long tradition (Ousby,
2002). Modern forms of eco-tourismbecame popular in the 1980s but can be traced back to
the wildlife conservation reserves in Kenya opening to tourists in the 1960s (Honey, 2009).
Academic study of eco-tourism has grown steadily over the past two decades
(Jayawardena et al., 2008). Enthusiasm for the issue re?ects the segment’s buoyancy
over the past 20 years (Mastny, 2001, The International Ecotourism Society, 2006) and
greater consensus on the meaning of key concepts (Horobin, 1996). A destination’s
environment, often a core component of its image, is a key factor motivating tourists’
destination choice and loyalty (Meng and Uysal, 2008; Hosany et al., 2006).
With rising concern over the impacts of global warming, there is a danger that tourism
operators and destination marketing organizations (DMOs) will exaggerate their
eco-credentials. Even though steps to improve environmental management and
accountability are positive, destination brands may suffer from inconsistency in
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VOL. 5 NO. 3 2011, pp. 282-290, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/17506181111156970
Andrea Insch is a Senior
Lecturer in the Marketing
Department, University of
Otago, Otago,
New Zealand.
Received: June 2009
Revised: June 2010
Accepted: June 2010
The author wishes to
acknowledge the assistance of
Ron Cuthbert and Magdalena
Florek for their useful
comments.
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approaches which create con?icting messages. As some players jump on the green
bandwagon, their actions might do more harm than good to the green image of destination
brands. Despite a surge in reported green practices and accreditation, little is known about
howthe concept applies to destination brands. An immediate issue arising fromthe notion of
a green destination brand is whether it encourages or erodes the environmental, economic
and social capital the brand embodies.
The idea and importance of green destination brands holds greater salience for tourism
dependent nations like Costa Rica and Kenya. In addition, destinations with focal natural
attractions and strong environmental associations cannot afford to neglect or damage this
dimension of their brand image. Conversely, over-emphasis of a country brand’s green factor
due to the appeal of its physical environment might con?ict with efforts to reposition the
brand’s image. Cultivation and protection of a positive green destination image is inherently
problematic, albeit alluring. Despite strong interest in green brands in the context of tourism,
application to destinations is poorly understood and lacking a formal de?nition. Therefore, the
purpose of this paper is to extend the concept of a green brand to destinations. To achieve this
goal, the study ?rst reviews insights from corporate and destination branding, and green
marketing. To understand the application and limitations of the concept, the study analyzes
New Zealand’s brand to provide an anatomy of a green destination brand.
Conceptualizing green destination brands
A nation’s natural assets, properly managed, provide a powerful source of emotional and
symbolic value for internal and external audiences. Furthermore, countries that promote the
philosophies, values and practices of environmental sustainability, rather than simply
showcasing the natural beauty of their landscapes, might develop a positive, sustainable
basis of reputational advantage. Even though these and other gains from nation branding to
enhance a country’s competitive advantage are widely accepted, the conceptual and
empirical basis of nation branding is in its infancy (de Chernatony, 2008). A fundamental
divide exists over whether nations can and should be branded (e.g. Anholdt, 2006;
Blichfeld, 2005). Furthermore, unlike corporate brand management, there are no set
guidelines on how to defend and build nation brand equity (Florek and Insch, 2008).
Papadopolous and Heslop (2002) argue that a feature distinguishing nation brands from
traditional brands is that they ‘‘are not directly under marketer’s control.’’ Furthermore, unlike
commercial products, a country is a public domain. ‘‘Place brands incorporate no clear
ownership and hence lack of ownership delimits possibilities for brand management’’
(Blichfeld, 2005, p. 399). Despite the dif?culties, a number of countries implement
destination branding strategies to boost economic growth and improve residents’ standard
of living. Ultimately, the goal of nation and destination branding should be to create a unique,
sustainable position for the destination in consumers’ minds. As de Chernatony and
McDonald (1998, p. 20) argue, a brand’s success results from ‘‘being able to sustain added
values in the face of competition.’’ It is the unique combination of values, related to a
country’s assets, which offer differentiation for the country brand and relevance to target
audiences (de Chernatony, 2008). However, it is often dif?cult to capture the diversity and
complexity of a nation in a single positioning statement that will appeal to different
stakeholder groups. Consequently, countries might fall into the trap of trying to be everything
to everyone and not communicating anything distinctive or unique.
Whether a green position offers destinations the opportunity to differentiate their brand has not
received much attention in the literature. Organizations and individuals in the tourism industry
might invest in building a green destination brand if they perceive it will enhance brand image,
preference and loyalty. Like other associations, environmental or green associations must be
authentic, convincing and offer a point of difference from rival destinations (Cai, 2001).
Brands able to classi?able as green are those whose users’ primary associations are
environmental conservation and sustainable practices. Of the few studies that examine the
nature of green brands, Hartmann, Apaolaza Ibanez, & Forcada Sainz (2005, p. 10)
characterize a green brand identity as having ‘‘a speci?c set of brand attributes and bene?ts
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related to the reduced environmental impact of the brand and its perception as being
environmentally sound.’’ The vagueness of environmentally sound behaviors re?ects the
loose de?nition of a green brand. Consequently, organizations that highlight their
environmental stewardship are often accused of greenwashing (akin to the notion of
whitewashing), due to the dif?culties in verifying their environmental credentials. Consumer
skepticism and criticism of greenwashing practices has compounded resistance to support
green brands (Rex and Baumann, 2007).
Their focus on green values is a distinguishing feature of green brands. This accords with
brand strength deriving from clearly de?ned identity (Keller, 2003) and focus on one brand
essence (Aaker and Joachimsthaler, 2000) that appeals to users (First and Khetriwal, 2008).
Effective green positioning involves brand communication and differentiation based on
functional attributes and emotional bene?ts (Hartmann et al., 2005). Like green product
brands, green destination brands must consider the limits of traditional eco-labeling
systems that summarize technical information (Rex and Baumann, 2007). Eco-labels might
add credibility to green brands, but are unlikely to actively communicate the array of
functional and emotional bene?ts consumers, other than the greenest, seek.
Eco-destinations and green destination brands are not synonymous. Others might perceive a
destination as having a green brand even though it does not feature or promote eco-tourist
attractions or resorts. Alternatively, eco-tourists might represent a large slice of a destination’s
market, but these tourists do not perceive it as a green brand. On the other hand, eco-tourism
and green destination brands might be mutually reinforcing. Thus, the multitude of tourist
operators, resorts, activities, attractions, supporting services and infrastructure, residents and
tourists at the destination each support or detract from the ambitions of a green destination
brand. For example, in the Asia-Paci?c, New Zealand rates high as a green nation, yet none of
its cities is perceived as having a green brand. This contrasts with Sweden, a nation seen as a
green destination brand, and is home to a green city, Malmo. On the other hand, critics
recognize Quicksilver, an Australian tourism operator, as committed to conserving the Great
Barrier Reef, a World Heritage site (Honey, 2003). Yet, Australia does not rank highly based on
its environmental record as a country, nor is noted as a host to green cities.
To overcome the amorphousness of green brands that can lead to criticism, certi?cation
systems (among others) offer the structure to reinforce green brands. Examples in the
tourism industry include Costa Rica’s Certi?cate for Sustainable Tourism (CST) and
Australia’s Nature and Ecotourism Accreditation Program (NEAP) certi?cation schemes, as
well as the well established ISO14001 EMS accreditation system (Honey, 2003). In addition,
a number of indicators and indexes of countries’ and cities’ environmental performance exist
to benchmark destinations eco- credentials. Widely published and referenced measures
include, but are not limited to: the National Geographic Society’s Greendex, the
Environmental Performance Index and the Environmental Sustainability Index.
Despite the spurt in interest in eco-tourism and sustainable tourism development, research
in green destination marketing and branding is limited. Walker and Hanson (1998) compare
destinations to traditional products and services through a taxonomy of green marketing
differences. They argue that even though destinations share a number of common motives
with product and service brands for engaging in green marketing – quality of life,
socio-economic impacts, waste disposal and pollution management and customers’
attitudes and behaviors – there are several notable differences. Destinations are distinct
from the other categories, as the marketer does not directly consume the natural resource.
They are stakeholder and steward rather than a user. In addition, destination marketers have
limited or no control over visitors’ experiences and have little capacity to expand the
destinations’ portfolio. In contrast to green product marketing, tourists do not take ownership
of the destination, yet are often important environmental stakeholders charged with
protecting the destinations’ assets. Unlike goods and services marketing, destination
marketers face the added dilemma of pricing their offerings at a rate that will attract tourists,
but not incur costs (or at least minimal) to the natural environment. Destination marketers
also face the challenge of satisfying the needs and welfare of multiple stakeholders –
visitors, residents, and the natural environment (Walker and Hanson, 1998).
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The focus of green tourism marketing is on pro?ling green or nature-based tourists
(e.g. Meng and Uysal, 2008). This mirrors the general state of green marketing. As Rex and
Baumann (2007, p. 569) observe, ‘‘most efforts have been related to the characteristics of
individuals, in terms of green consumers, howmany there are, howto identify them, and how
they behave.’’ According to First and Khetriwal (2008, p. 3), ‘‘the concept of green branding
is almost unexplored. Much more attention has been given to green marketing and green
communication.’’ In parallel, the concept of a green destination brand is also limited in its
conceptual development.
Methodology
This study adopts an in-depth case study of New Zealand’s destination brand to explore the
application of the green brand concept to the destination context. New Zealand serves as a
critical case to examine due to the global recognition of its natural environment as a major
attraction for tourists. Since building and maintaining a brand is a long-term commitment, an
historical case study approach is the most suitable methodology. This contrasts with prior
studies that take a snapshot approach. In this study, the evidence was collected to capture the
development of the destination’s brand identity and perceptions over time, since ‘‘historical
phenomena can be rich and complex and that they can best be understood by investigating
the time(s), place(s), and context(s) in which they arise and develop’’ (Low and Fullerton,
1994, p. 174). The fundamental objective of historical research is to establish accurate
accounts of social phenomenon through a careful consideration of all relevant available data.
The potential for biases that may taint analysis and interpretation of historical data is always
present. To minimize this potential data triangulation, comparing the different primary and
secondary sources, substantiated facts where possible. Informal interviews with a range of
participants representing various segments of the national tourism industry – government
agencies and departments, regional tourism organizations, major airlines and operators –
served to verify and supplement the archival sources to achieve data triangulation. The paper
then discusses key events in the construction of the brand and provides supporting evidence
to illustrate and substantiate the interpretation of important facts.
Findings
New Zealand is a youthful, new nation dependent on international tourism among its other
resource-intensive industries (i.e. dairy, meat, horticulture). Earnings fromtourism contribute
approximately 10 percent of GNP (Anon, 2008). Yet, New Zealand represents a fraction of
the international travel and tourism market and competes for 30 percent of the market
against about 90 other countries (Morgan and Pritchard, 2002). Such dependency is
unhealthy given the increasing susceptibility of tourism to economic and political risk,
environmental crises and price competition. Much of the allure of visiting and exploring New
Zealand is due to its remoteness, low population density and isolation. Ironically, these
features are also among the greatest obstacles facing the country’s tourism industry.
Since its colonial development, New Zealand’s pristine environment and unique landscape –
a scenic wonderland – have featured prominently in its tourist promotions (Bell, 2008).
Subsequent marketing campaigns capitalize on the recognition gained through the movie Lord
of the Rings, which put New Zealand on the mass market tourismmap. While the positioning of
‘‘clean and green’’ might be considered a recent move, these values can be linked to national
identity since the 1970s (Bell, 1996). New Zealand gained attention for its stance against
nuclear energy and genetically modi?ed organisms in the 1980s. One of the country’s leading
beer brands – Steinlarger Pure – emphasizes the country’s nuclear-free status in its brand
identity and supporting marketing communications. New Zealand food manufacturers,
particularly in the dairy and meat product categories, also link the quality of their produce to the
country’s clean, green image, but without an understanding of the potential risks of green
positioning or the ?nancial outcomes of their investments (Insch and Florek, 2009).
New Zealand’s positioning as a green country continues unabated. Launch of the much
celebrated ‘‘100% pure campaign’’ in 1999 cemented this position. The country’s (and one
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of the world’s) longest-running tourismcampaign built on the original values and images, but
with less clutter. The environment has been elevated as the core component of the brand. In
particular, the visual representation of the concept, the fernmark logo, features prominently
and takes a more pervasive role in the destination’s brand communications (Tourism New
Zealand, 2003). First registered as a trademark in 1991, the fernmark concept derived from
research of international visitors’ perception of New Zealand’s personality – unaffected,
honest and open; young, active, fresh; not knowing the meaning of cannot do; resolute; quiet
achievers; and seeking contemporary solutions (Masterton, 1992).
In November 1999, at a cost of $17000, the New Zealand government introduced a
redesigned black and white fern logo. The complementary tourism slogan and logo
‘‘100% pure’’ developed by M&C Saatchi was capable of being adapted to a range of
contexts – 100 percent pure experience, 100 percent pure exhilaration, 100 percent pure
brilliance. In addition to forming the basis of the Tourism New Zealand’s promotional
messages in international markets, the campaign had also established standards for
tourism services (Florek and Insch, 2008). In July 2002, Tourism New Zealand launched a
new logo for their tourist operators’ quality assurance scheme (QA), Qualmarkw, using the
same stylized silver fern used in international tourismmarketing. The silver fernmark links QA
with the Visitor Information Network, creating a recognizable and uni?ed brand for all visitors.
Six years later, the Qualmarkwscheme expanded to audit tourism operators’ environmental
sustainability under the ‘‘Go for Gold’’ initiative. The additional criteria requires
Qualmark-licensed operators to meet minimum standards for environmental performance,
covering areas including: energy ef?ciency, water conservation, greater use of recycling,
waste reduction, improved fuel use and higher levels of involvement in local conservation
activities. Accredited operators with advanced environmental systems can achieve higher
enviro-gold, enviro-silver and enviro-bronze rankings under the scheme. According to
Tourism New Zealand (2008, p. 6), this initiative successfully launched ‘‘as a result of the
industry’s commitment to sustainability through the New Zealand Tourism Strategy’’.
Launched in May 2008, it is dif?cult to evaluate its effectiveness or contribution to the
authority’s goal of environmental enhancement and protection. New Zealand’s latest Tourism
Strategy enshrines the aim of environmental leadership. As part of this strategy, it aims to be
a carbon neutral destination by 2015 (Tourism New Zealand, 2007). Meanwhile, the nation
aspires to achieve this status in 2020, with zero net carbon emissions across all sectors of
the economy (Anon, 2007). The lag between promoting the destination’s position and
introducing the necessary QA standards echoes in the words of the New Zealand Tourism
Minister, Mr Damien O’Connor, ‘‘The 100 percent Pure New Zealand brand has positioned
New Zealand on the world stage in terms of its environmental standards. It has become a
promise and an aspirational goal’’ (quoted in Milne, 2008, p. 7).
NewZealand’s brand position aims to attract tourists seeking nature-based experiences and
eco-tourism activities. This segment, named the Interactive Travellerw, travel often, are
active participants in a range of activities, especially in the natural environment, are
environmentally and culturally aware and want to share authentic and new experiences with
others (Tourism New Zealand, 2008). To raise awareness of the country as a destination
among this segment, several consecutive advertising campaigns depict the country’s
stunning and varied landscapes. A Maori culture and heritage dimension added to the
singular environmental focus of the brand, to differentiate its identity from rival destinations
such as Canada, Australia, Sweden and Switzerland.
To reach the Interactive Travellerw, DMOs and independent tourist operators use a variety of
media, with online communication prominent in the marketing communications mix. A study
by Bell (2008) indicates that almost 25 percent of all internet sites advertising eco-tourism
explicitly mention New Zealand. The country also has the largest number of Green Globe 21
accredited businesses in the world (Natural Capital, 2004) and the town of Kaikora achieved
this status (Tourism New Zealand, 2007). Yet, New Zealand’s tourism industry has been slow
to encourage environmental accreditation as part of the Qualmarkw scheme.
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The success of Tourism New Zealand’s campaigns, based on a strong environmental
positioning, is evident in valuations of New Zealand’s destination brand. In 2005, Interbrand
valued New Zealand’s tourism brand as worth US$13.6bn (Interbrand, 2005). In addition,
BrandFinance estimated the value of brand New Zealand as US$102bn (Anholt-GMI, 2005).
In the same year, 100 percent pure was named the tenth best tourism brand in the world in
the Anholt-GMI nations brand index (Anholt-GMI, 2005). Visitor numbers have risen by 50
percent to 2.4 million annually and tourism export earnings have doubled to $5.9 billion per
annum (Tourism New Zealand, 2008). An earlier study attempted to place a value on the
image of New Zealand’s clean green image. The Ministry for the Environment (2001)
estimated that the country would lose about NZ$938 million in revenue from its ?ve inbound
tourist markets (Australia, Korea, the US and UK, and Japan) if tourists’ perceptions of the
environment worsened. International visitors originating from these markets were shown
images representing a clean green New Zealand, and images portraying New Zealand with
a degraded environment. The research also revealed that tourists’ perceptions of the
environment would affect their intended length of stay. Results varied between countries. On
average Australian tourists would cut short their length of stay by 48 percent, compared to
79 percent for Japanese tourists.
Dif?culties in accurately measuring the monetary value derived from a positive environmental
image abound. However, there are threats to the sanctity of New Zealand’s environment and
tourists’ perceptions that it delivers on this brand promise. Some of the most urgent
environmental challenges facing the nation include poor and deteriorating air quality
(particularly in the two major gateways to NewZealand – Auckland and Christchurch), erosion
and the visual impact of some land-use practices on landscapes, degraded freshwater quality
(especially from intensive agriculture) and marine environments in estuaries and harbors
located near main population centers (Ministry for the Environment, 2001).
Like other isolated and distant destinations, mounting concern among environmentally
conscious consumers over the impact of carbon emissions linked to tourism also threatens
New Zealand. Similar to the green miles dilemma for food imports, opinion leaders in key
markets (especially the UK and Germany) are questioning the environmental and ethical
basis of long-haul travel (Tourism New Zealand, 2007). Even though the impacts of this
movement have are not yet quanti?ed, the industry recognizes the need to focus on niche
markets, more able to offset their related carbon emissions. There is also a growing
awareness of the need to account for carbon emissions and demonstrate environmental
responsibility through carbon offsetting programs. For example, Christchurch International
Airport is the second airport in the world to achieve carbon neutral status through a national
accreditation scheme, carboNZero (Anon, 2008).
A positive indicator of New Zealand’s environmental performance that adds credibility is
ranking seventh in the 2008 Environmental Performance Index. However, despite these
broad metrics of a strong green destination brand, there is contradictory evidence to
undermine and erode its image. Bell’s (2008) examination of New Zealand backpacker
hostel operators revealed a signi?cant gap between New Zealand’s green brand promises
and the systems and services that form part of the delivery process. There is also growing
unease about the country’s environmental concern and authenticity. In 2006, the World Wide
Fund for Nature reported New Zealand as one of the ten worst countries in the world for
consumer demand for natural resources In addition, limited evidence of domestic
consumers’ perceptions New Zealand’s positive environmental credentials indicates
skepticism. A survey of New Zealanders found that 42 percent thought that the clean
green concept was a myth, despite the wide recognition the concept has within New
Zealand (Gendall et al., 2001).
Growth in climate change based tourism, including Antarctic icebergs as a new tourist
attraction, is creating an unfortunate irony and associated demand for transport. New
Zealand, like other countries, also faces criticism over its inability to meet Kyoto Protocol
targets for reducing carbon emissions. By 2003, its emissions had increased by 22 percent
(Pollock, 2008). Two years later, greenhouse gas emissions increased by 24.7 percent
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compared to 1990 levels (Ministry for the Environment, 2008). Many now parody the
‘‘100% pure’’ campaign.
Collectively, these signals threaten to undermine New Zealand’s ‘‘clean, green’’ position. In
addition, as the general manager of tourism services at New Zealand Automobile
Association, Peter Blackwell notes, ‘‘The competition for global dollars and leisure
experiences is extreme and if you look at the core values of what New Zealand is, which is
clean and green . . . Peru, Chile, Costa Rica, Vietnam – they all can ?t into that category of
new competitive environments around the world’’ (quoted in Hembry, 2006).
Conclusion
Creative leveraging of awe-inspiring landscapes depicted in ?lm has crystallized New
Zealand’s ambitions to build a green destination brand. However, such ardent positioning
presents multiple dilemmas for DMOs. Particular challenges in creating a unique and
sustainable green destination brand relate to the major differences between destination
brands and traditional product and service brands. Of these, perhaps the most complex is
enabling all stakeholders to act as stewards of the assets of the brand – the natural
environment they choose to experience. Each stakeholder group – visitors, operators,
residents, promoters – differ in their motives for supporting a green destination brand and
acting out their environmental commitment. Divergence of interests makes a green
destination brand almost impossible to protect from harm. Like all destination brands,
ownership is distributed, meaning that the integrity of the brand is dif?cult, if not impossible,
to protect or control. In spite of this major barrier, the allure of green destination brands
remains and many destinations, like New Zealand, purposefully construct their brand
identity on this basis. Although, from the case analysis, it appears that the greatest obstacle
to overcome greenwashing is consistently delivering this promise to an environmentally
savvy and discerning market. The consequences of contaminating a green brand image by
word-of-mouth and social media platforms can be severe as others learn and complain
about, recommend or discourage others to visit.
Bell (2008) argues that top-down and bottom-up approaches to building green destination
brands must work synergistically. Choosing the right incentives (sanctions versus reward) to
encourage consistent environmental messages and practices (image versus reality) might
represent the greatest barrier to green destination brands. For example, it is unknown whether
tourism operators would be more likely to respond to penalties for inappropriate behavior or
act proactively through pride for their natural surroundings. Evidence suggests that sectors of
the industry with the most to lose and prove (i.e. transport) have taken steps to maximize their
environmental credibility through carbon reduction and offsetting measures. Whether they
acted proactively to pre-empt a consumer backlash is unclear. Other operators
enthusiastically embrace the green umbrella brand as mutually reinforcing the positioning
of their brands. At the same time, threats to NewZealand’s country brand could taint the image
of New Zealand’s destination brand and those of individual tourism services providers.
The New Zealand experience suggests that sequencing is vital in this process of setting
expectations and ensuring systems are in place to meet them. The wisdom of promotional
campaigns with an emphasis on the natural environment preceding a universal system of
substantiating and protecting its environmental positioning is questionable. An even greater
dilemma is ensuring that residents protect the integrity of the brand, especially populations
which do not strive to minimize or mitigate their negative environmental impacts. Travelers
observe unfavorable behaviors and take note of where and how a destination’s
environmental standards and regulations are less stringent than at home.
This ?rst step to understand the nature of green destination brands raises as many, if not
more, questions than it aimed to answer. The study suggests additional in-depth analysis of
individual tourism operators’ approaches and perceptions to better understand the barriers
and enablers to build strong, credible green destination brands. On the other hand,
research could uncover travelers’ attitudes to perceptions of destinations that strive to build
an identity based primarily on their positive environmental values and behaviors. From this
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perspective, it might be possible to assess whether destinations can achieve a
differentiated, sustainable brand positioning strategy based on their greenness and
whether travelers view destinations’ greenness with credence. This is imperative, given
similar ambitions of nations to reduce their carbon emissions and achieve carbon neutral
status (among other admirable environmental goals). Like the thin literature on green
marketing and branding, there is a need for more work to identify the most effective and
credible ways of communicating green destination brand essence to receptive audiences.
Additional case studies, at multiple levels – nations, regions, cities, resorts – would serve as
an appropriate tool for comparison, to gain a deeper understanding of the concept, anatomy
and implications of building and protecting green destination brands.
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Corresponding author
Andrea Insch can be contacted at: [email protected]
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This article has been cited by:
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[CrossRef]
2. Staci M. Zavattaro. 2014. Re-imagining the sustainability narrative in US cities. Journal of Place Management and Development
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