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The doc explain in detail on complete report on RFID.
RFID- RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION
Introduction Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) continues to evolve as a major technology for tracking goods and assets around the world. RFID uses radio waves to identify 'things' automatically and in real time. For the supply chain and operations it provides increased levels of product and asset visibility. For example, it can help hospitals track and locate expensive equipment more quickly to improve patient care. Retailers are looking at using the technology to automatically receive shipments, and have greater visibility into the merchandize in the back rooms and on the store shelves. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) see RFID as a compelling technology to prevent the introduction of counterfeit drugs and biologics into the U.S. drug distribution chain. Wal-Mart and the Department of Defense (DoD), along with some other major retailers, now require their suppliers to begin RFID-tagging pallets and cases that are shipped into their selected distribution centers and stores. These mandates are about to impact a large number of manufacturers and distributors around the world. While businesses are looking to use the technology in many scenarios across various industries, the retailer mandates are the main driving force behind the current interest in the technology.
RFID: Technology Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is an automatic identification method, relying on storing and remotely retrieving data using devices called RFID tags or transponders. The technology requires some extent of cooperation of an RFID reader and an RFID tag. An RFID tag is an object that can be applied to or incorporated into a product, animal, or person for the purpose of identification and tracking using radio waves. Some tags can be read from several meters away and beyond the line of sight of the reader. Most RFID tags contain at least two parts. One is an integrated circuit for storing and processing information, modulating and demodulating a radio-frequency (RF) signal, and other specialized functions. The second is an antenna for receiving and transmitting the signal. There are generally two types of RFID tags: active RFID tags, which contain a battery, and passive RFID tags, which have no battery. Future Chipless RFID allows for discrete identification of tags without an integrated circuit, thereby allowing tags to be printed directly onto assets at a lower cost than traditional tags. As of now none of the chipless concepts has become operational.
Types of Tags: Also called transponders, these can be either active, with their own means of sending a signal, or passive, relying upon the tag reader to provide the power necessary to generate the response signal. The signal could be a simple identification number stored in a read-only tag, or a complex data stream that includes additional data stored within the tag's memory. These more complex tags could contain such data items as manufacture date, lot number, serial number, or even built-in sensors to track average storage temperatures or other data.
1. Passive Tags Passive RFID tags have no internal power supply. The minute electrical current induced in the antenna by the incoming radio frequency signal provides just enough power for the CMOS integrated circuit in the tag to power up and transmit a response. Most passive tags signal by backscattering the carrier wave from the reader. This means that the antenna has to be designed both to collect power from the incoming signal and also to transmit the outbound backscatter signal. The response of a passive RFID tag is not necessarily just an ID number; the tag chip can contain non-volatile data, possibly writable EEPROM for storing data. 2. Active Tags Unlike passive RFID tags, active RFID tags have their own internal power source, which is used to power the integrated circuits and to broadcast the response signal to the reader. Communications from active tags to readers is typically much more reliable (i.e. fewer errors) than those from passive tags due to the ability for active tags to conduct a "session" with a reader. 3. Semi-passive Tags
Semi-passive tags are similar to active tags in that they have their own power source, but the battery only powers the microchip and does not power the broadcasting of a signal. The response is usually powered by means of backscattering the RF energy from the reader, where energy is reflected back to the reader as with passive tags. An additional application for the battery is to power data storage. 4. Beacon Tags Beacon tags blink the coded identity signal at a regular pattern. This may be a constant blink rate or a blink rate with stochastic shift or some triggered blinking. Not to activate the responder function in a tag first prevents from limiting the speed capabilities and improves the availability of the identification information under noisy conditions. 5. Zombie Tags One of the main concerns with RFID tags is that their contents can be read by anyone with an appropriately equipped scanner - even after you take it out of the store. One technology that has been suggested is a zombie RFID tag, a tag that can be temporarily deactivated when it leaves the store. The process would work like this: you bring your purchase up to the register, the RFID scanner reads the item, you pay for it and as you leave the store, you pass a special device that sends a signal to the RFID tag to "die." That is, it is no longer readable. The "zombie" element comes in when you bring an item back to the store. A special device especially made for that kind of tag "re-animates" the RFID tag, allowing the item to reenter the supply chain.
Readers Also called interrogators, these come in various configurations depending on the location, environment, and scanning area coverage required. A reader is used to identify all tags within its reception coverage area. Readers require some intelligence for aggregating and smoothing the tag data.
Fig: Reader and Tag
Information transmitted from the tag can be interpreted by reading the data directly from the reader itself or through a software–based interface. RFID tags can come in numerous forms with different capabilities, including: ? Key fobs (active read/write). ? Bulk metal tags (use-once passive read-only). ? Garment disks (reusable active read-only). ? Smart Card credit-cards with RFID tags embedded for storing personal information. Today every RFID implementation is different; all RFID solutions have to evaluate various performance and cost factors, including the operating environment, on-tag memory storage, and signal transmission restrictions. Each of these issues has significant cost impacts on both tags and readers. In addition, RFID solutions in the market today are generally proprietary in nature, and tags from one vendor cannot generally be read by a reader from a different vendor. There are some limited RFID standards in place; however, these standards are not globally accepted, and some even conflict with RFID standards in other countries.
EPC: Electronic Product Code One of the driving forces in RFID adoption is the emergence of Electronic Product Code (EPC) concepts. In 1998 researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) proposed a system-level approach to automatic object identification to solve interoperability issues and reduce the related hardware and software costs. The MIT Auto-ID Center realized that the key to low-cost RFID technology was to focus on reducing functionality on the tag by storing a unique identifier, called an Electronic Product Code (EPC), that acts as a license plate, pointing to more information of the tagged item stored in a data base. This makes the tag simple, improving the read rates. They also realized that developing global standards to allow interoperability is key to driving adoption and reducing tag prices.
EPC Global network In 2003, the research and intellectual property from the MIT Auto-ID Center was transferred to a joint venture between EAN International and the UCC; this new organization is now called EPCglobal. It is a non-profit organization driving the global adoption and implementation of the EPCglobal Network across industry sectors. EPCglobal develops and oversees standards for the Electronic Product Code (EPC) Network. Additionally, EPCglobal provides a global EPC number registry service for electronic product codes. The EPC Network begins with the Electronic Product Code (EPC). Essentially, the EPC is the electronic equivalent of the UPC barcode. It is a string of characters that uniquely identifies any tagged item. However, instead of referring to a class of products, like UPCs do today, the EPC refers to a specific instance of product. In essence the EPC is a single ID built upon smaller IDs that represent the manufacturer, product identification (or model), and a serial number for that particular item.
The EPC is embedded in a RFID tag, primarily a low cost passive read-only tag on individual products or cases. When a reader scans each tag, it will transmit back its unique EPC code. This is done with little to no manual effort required compared to the work required to open boxes and align a barcode with its visual scanner. The EPC tag standard does not preclude other tags with read-write functionality or even more advanced capabilities. However, as additional tag functions and capabilities increase, so do the related manufacturing costs for that tag.
Object Naming Service and EPC IS The EPC works together with the Object Naming Service (ONS). The ONS matches the EPC ID to a location on the Internet (or possibly the intranet) that provides additional information about that particular object. ONS is based in part on the Internet's existing Domain Name System (DNS), which routes information requests to appropriate Internet locations. For a given EPC the ONS Framework will point to the EPC Information Service that contains the information for that EPC. The following diagram illustrates the various steps.
Figure 2. EPC routing. 1. The manufacturer creates a product, and records it with its local EPC IS. 2. The local EPC IS informs the global EPC IS Discovery service that a tag read is registered. 3. The manufacturer sends the tagged product to the retailer, and the retailer registers the receipt with its local EPC IS. 4. The retailer's local EPC IS registers the tag read with the global EPC IS Discovery service.
5. The retailer requires the product information, so it queries the Root ONS that is deployed by EPC Global. 6. The Root ONS points to the appropriate manufacturer's local ONS that points to the manufacturer's EPC IS. 7. The retailer connects with the manufacturer's EPC IS and gets the required information. This is the proposed data flow by EPC Global. However, most of the retailers and manufacturers prefer closed-loop systems where they do not have to connect with global registries for information. Many RFID applications, such as those used by the military, may happen in environments where internet connectivity is rare. Instead of registering tag reads with a global service, businesses may adopt a more transactional approach. Those businesses that see value in open-loop systems, and are eager to track product movement through the enterprise and share data among the supply chain constituents, are keen to use existing B2B networks. In such scenarios, the information flow may be quite different than that in a closed loop.
Regulation and standardizations There is no global public body that governs the frequencies used for RFID. In principle, every country can set its own rules for this. The main bodies governing frequency allocation for RFID are: ? USA: FCC (Federal Communications Commission) ? Canada: CRTC (Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission) ? Europe: ERO, CEPT, ETSI, and national administrations (note that the national administrations must ratify the usage of a specific frequency before it can be used in that country) ? Malaysia: Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC) ? Japan: MIC (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications) ? China: Ministry of Information Industry ? Taiwan: NCC (National Communications Commission) ? South Africa: ICASA ? South Korea: Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy ? Australia: Australian Communications and Media Authority. ? New Zealand: Ministry of Economic Development ? Singapore: Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore ? Brazil: Anatel (Agência Nacional de Telecomunicações) Some standards that have been made regarding RFID technology include: ? ISO 14223/1 – Radio frequency identification of Animals, advanced transponders – Air interface ? ISO 14443: This standard is a popular HF (13.56 MHz) standard for HighFIDs which is being used as the basis of RFID-enabled passports under ICAO 9303. ? ISO 15693: This is also a popular HF (13.56 MHz) standard for HighFIDs widely used for non-contact smart payment and credit cards.
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ISO/IEC 18000: Information technology — Radio frequency identification for item management: o Part 1: Reference architecture and definition of parameters to be standardized o Part 2: Parameters for air interface communications below 135 kHz o Part 3: Parameters for air interface communications at 13.56& MHz o Part 4: Parameters for air interface communications at 2.45 GHz o Part 6: Parameters for air interface communications at 860-960 MHz o Part 7: Parameters for active air interface communications at 433 MHz ISO 18185: This is the industry standard for electronic seals or "e-seals" for tracking cargo containers using the 433 MHz and 2.4 GHz frequencies. EPCglobal – this is the standardization framework that is most likely to undergo International Standardization according to ISO rules as with all sound standards in the world, unless residing with limited scope, as customs regulations, air-traffic regulations and others. Currently the big distributors and governmental customers are pushing EPC heavily as a standard well-accepted in their community, but not yet regarded as for salvation to the rest of the world. ASTM D7434, Standard Test Method for Determining the Performance of Passive Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Transponders on Palletized or Unitized Loads ASTM D7435, Standard Test Method for Determining the Performance of Passive Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Transponders on Loaded Containers
Problems and Concerns 1. Global standardization The frequencies used for RFID in the USA are currently incompatible with those of Europe or Japan. Furthermore, no emerging standard has yet become as universal as the barcode. 2. Security/ Privacy Concern A primary RFID security concern is the illicit tracking of RFID tags. Tags which are worldreadable pose a risk to both personal location privacy and corporate/military security. Such concerns have been raised with respect to the United States Department of Defense's recent adoption of RFID tags for supply chain management. A second class of defense uses cryptography to prevent tag cloning. Some tags use a form of "rolling code" scheme, wherein the tag identifier information changes after each scan, thus reducing the usefulness of observed responses. Cryptographic protocols attempt to achieve privacy against unauthorized readers. One major challenge in securing RFID tags is a shortage of computational resources within the tag.
3. Exploits Ars Technica Reported in March 2006 an RFID buffer overflow bug that could infect airport terminal RFID Databases for baggage, and also Passport databases to obtain confidential information on the passport holder. 4. Passports In an effort to make passports more secure, several countries have implemented RFID in passports. However, the encryption on UK chips was broken in les than 48 hours. Since that incident, further efforts have allowed researchers to clone passport data while the passport is being mailed to its owner. Where a criminal used to need to secretly open and then reseal the envelope, now it can be done without detection, adding some degree of insecurity to the passport system.
Controversy
Privacy: The benefits offered by RFID provide a compelling case for deployment within the supply chain. However, organizations must be mindful of privacy issues surrounding the technology. Most RFID deployments are supply-chain applications, such as tagging for shipping containers or pallets. These do not associate personally identifiable information (PII) with tag identification (EPC) numbers. However, with item-level tagging, unique identification numbers in EPCglobal tags might become associated with an individual at the point of sale (POS) when the tagged product, such as an item of clothing, is acquired. Industrial application of RFID
1. Retail Industry Imagine a shopping cart equipped with a scanner and a touch-screen computer that acts as a virtual personal shopper. As you scan items and put them in your cart, the computer offers information about each product and suggests complementary items. The computer keeps a list of the items in your cart with a running total so you know exactly how much you're spending. When finished shopping, you head to a self-checkout stand or to a cashier. Because your items are already totaled and bagged, the wait time is minimal. All you have to do is pay.
The power behind this hassle-free shopping experience is radio frequency identification (RFID) technology. RFID is helping retailers around the world improve customer satisfaction and increase sales. The technology is transforming the retail industry by offering retailers real-time visibility into inventory and product movement to improve store productivity and loss prevention. Many of the world's largest retailers have mandated RFID tagging. This move affects more than 200,000 manufacturers and suppliers, driving the worldwide market for hardware and software to support RFID. RFID can help the retail sector in the following ways: RFID improves inventory management Improving customer service Boosting customer loyalty 2. Pharmaceutical Industry Drug Counterfeiting Pharmaceutical companies, distributors, and hospitals need technology to deter drug counterfeiting. The World Health Organization estimates that between 5 to 8 percent of global pharmaceuticals are counterfeit. In some countries, the percentage of counterfeit drugs is significantly higher at between 25 to 40 percent. Thus, the pharmaceutical industry reports that it loses $2 billion per year due to counterfeit drugs. Counterfeit drugs adversely affect people’s lives by preventing patients from receiving needed medication. Fortunately, RFID/EPC tags can help detect products that are: • Counterfeit or fake • Tampered with, adulterated or substituted • Unacceptable (i.e., expired, discarded, returned, recalled, etc.)4
Clinical Trials The pharmaceutical drug approval process is rigorous and dependent on meticulous documentation. As new drugs go through the clinical trial phase, accurately tracking patient usage is crucial. RFID technology can improve the tracking of drug usage throughout the clinical-phase testing protocols. Improved tracking and accountability can improve the reliability and speed of the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) drug approval process.
Inventory Management Manufacturers and distributors need improved visibility throughout the supply chain to gain an accurate account of inventory. Lack of visibility of customer orders results in increased inventory because healthcare practitioners often keep buffer stocks to avoid stock outs. Increased inventory visibility could reduce buffer stocks by substituting knowledge for inventory, thereby reducing total inventory costs.
3. Healthcare sector Medical Device and Asset Tracking RFID has strong application potential with medical device companies. The FDA requires medical device companies to be able to identify each unit by serial number. Medical device companies need better control of implants on consignment with hospitals because returns can occur more than 50 percent of the time. RFID technology that improves visibility into returns could enable faster redeployment since the company would know sooner when an unused product could be returned. Surgical instruments and other devices must be properly cleaned and packaged between uses. Tags on the instruments and readers on the sterilization chambers and storage cabinets can validate proper cleaning and help locate needed instruments. Since medical devices are often mounted on portable carts, smart tags placed on the devices and readers installed in the doorways can enable personnel to quickly locate a crucial piece of equipment and immediately determine its fitness for use. Similarly, catastrophic errors would be completely traceable from manufacture to use, and preventative maintenance on equipment could be more accurately tracked. Patient Tracking Patient identification and location assistance are often needed to ensure patient safety when urgent medical attention is needed. Patient tags with RFID chips will meet this need. Product Tracking Hospitals currently have to track radioactive isotopes throughout the facility from storage to transport and then from administration to disposal. RFID tags and readers can automate these tasks thereby saving time and resources. Active RFID tags with read/write capabilities can be used to detect seal integrity for containers and individual packages. The tag can record the time and duration of seal loss, allowing even problems that occur mid-shipment to be detected. Inventory Management Large amounts of inventory typically can be found in hospital operating rooms. Lack of visibility in the supply chain coupled with the unauthorized purchase of certain items often results in the proliferation of “unofficial” inventory that could be reduced by properly managing the materiel ordering process. RFID technology can provide an accurate account of both official and unofficial inventory levels. Proper diagnosis of the problem will drive the implementation of corrective solutions. 4. Transportation Industry In the transportation and logistics industries, RFID is found in a wide array of applications, as more companies begin conducting new pilots and implementations. Even applications within the same market may differ drastically from one another. RFID in transportation and logistics industry has found its bulk application in: airlines and airports, postal services courier services as well as in railways.
The Midland, Mich.-based chemical and plastics producer already has implemented an RFID system combined with global positioning system technology for its rail fleet and will begin another pilot program for intermodal containers this year.
5. Supply chain management RFID promises to revolutionize supply chains and usher in a new era of cost savings, efficiency and business intelligence. The potential applications are vast as it is relevant to any organization engaged in the production, movement or sale of physical goods. This includes retailers, distributors, logistics service providers, manufacturers and their entire supplier base, hospitals and pharmaceuticals companies, and the entire food chain. It has the potential to improve efficiency and visibility, cut costs, deliver better asset utilisation, produce higher quality goods, reduce shrinkage and counterfeiting, and increase sales by reducing out-of-stocks. It can even help improve the safety of the food and pharmaceuticals we buy.
Impact of RFID and potential applications: Industrial perspective 1. 2. 3. 4. Replacing barcodes Telemetry Identification of patients and hospital staff Eliminate sampling Method
Challenges faced by RFID Technology: Indian Context Indian IT companies and techies are doing their precious bit in promoting radio frequency identification (RFID) in their country, as industries, government authorities, libraries, shopping
malls and transport systems worldwide step up their use of the technology. Yet, in the world's second most populous nation, RFID continues to be a concept--waiting to be put to practice. 1. Indian companies are much smaller than some of their western counterparts and lack the scale to justify large-scale rollouts of RFID. 2. Another barrier is the absence of mandates, established either by large market players such as Wal-Mart in the United States and Metro Group in Germany, or regulatory bodies such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 3. Another deterrent to wider RFID adoption is cost.
RFID Implementation in Wal?Mart’s
Wal?Mart’s primary reason for implementing RFID in their supply chain is to improve efficiency and cut costs in their rather complex distribution system. This increase profitability and competitiveness as they gain better control over their inventory. According to Wal?Mart’s RFID chief Ron Moser, around 2 percent of the retail giant’s lost sales are due to the simple fact a store has run out of an item, but 41 percent of lost sales are due to inventory problems. In these cases, an item was located in the store, but was not placed on the proper shelf, or was sitting in a storage room. If RFID can fix just 10 percent of that problem, then Wal?Mart will gain $287 million per year by avoiding lost sales. Using the data from RFID tags, Wal?Mart can monitor stock levels in real?time and prevent human error. They have also begun to use the technology to track purchasing patterns, and then advise suppliers on more cost?efficient methods of delivery. (For instance, if most people buy three two?packs of socks, Wal?Mart can advise the sock?maker to save money by packaging socks in sets of six.) Suppliers can view their items’ RFID data by using Wal?Mart’s Retail Link extranet site.
Wal?Mart’s Requirements for Supply Chain RFID Tracking Wal?Mart has been relentless in their pursuit of RFID tagging in the supply chain. Each year, more suppliers are required to comply. In addition, Wal?Mart has changed their tag specifications to reflect changes in the EPC standards. EPC (Electronic Product Code) Tagging Wal?Mart requires all RFID tags to be EPCglobal Gen2 tags. This means that the supplier must enroll with EPCglobal, Inc., which assigns and maintains Electronic Product Code (EPC)s in its Object Naming Registry. EPCglobal often refers to EPCs as “compact license plates” that uniquely identify objects in the supply chain. The EPC is divided into numbers that identify the manufacturer and product type. In addition, the EPC incorporates a serial number to identify unique items. Each EPC number contains: • Header, which identifies the length, type, structure, version, and generation of EPC. • Manager Number, which identifies the company or company entity. • Object Class, similar to a stock?keeping unit (SKU). • Serial Number, which is the specific instance of the Object Class being tagged.
Above is an illustration of how an EPC number is created. This method is useful in many ways, because it connects back to previous tracking technology in the form of the GTIN(Global Trade Item Number). Data Synchronization Requirements: Wal?Mart will require suppliers to update GTIN information via Retail Link prior to releasing tagged shipments. Since EPCs include the GTIN, this means all suppliers must be GTIN compliant or order to send and receive EPC data. Also, as part of sending and receiving GTIN information, data must be synchronized through Global Data Synchronization Network (GDSN ? UCCNet). Wal?Mart also requires that the data must be accurate. Wal-Mart has already learned through RFID pilots that 40% to 50% of its out-of-stocks occur on the weekend, and up to 60% of missed sales occur between 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. The tags can also be used in the manufacturing process. It can help suppliers become more efficient, and the tags will help companies on both ends know where their products are at all times. Wal-Mart is pushing it most aggressively to its suppliers. Wal-Mart says the technology will help it keep costs low, which it can pass on to its shoppers. It is unrealistic to categorically say all products that are shipped into the Wal-Mart distribution centers can be read 100% of the time. Part of the reason is physics. Metals reflect the radiofrequency waves that are part of RFID, and liquids absorb them. A result is that tags are more difficult to read. RFID tags on packages in the middle of a pallet also are difficult to read.
Implementation of RFID in The United States Department Of Defence (DoD) The United States Department of Defense (DoD) operates the largest active RFID system in the world. For almost a decade active RFID technology has been in use within DoD, most notably during Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom when it was placed on major items and consolidated cargo moving into the theater to provide in-transit visibility to Commanders. Among the services, the Army was the first to install active, data rich RFID technology at selected sites around the world in order to track containers through the logistics pipeline and to provide stand-off visibility of container contents. Fixed interrogators installed at key nodes read RFID tags attached to pallets or containers and provided data to a regional server prior to passing the data to the global asset visibility systems. Active RFID technology has also been used for in-transit visibility (ITV) applications on major end-items and consolidated cargo moving via the Defense Transportation System (DTS). The current DoD environment for use of active RFID encompasses all services, agencies, and Combatant and Supporting Commands to provide the ITV necessary for the proper exercise of statutory Directive Authority for Logistics. In direct contrast to DoD, the commercial sector has been using both active and passive RFID technologies since the 1980s. The most easily recognized form of RFID has been those systems used in toll road applications such as EZ-Pass, and on the retail side, theft prevention systems such as EAS (electronic article surveillance). DoD is in the midst of a fundamental transformation of its logistics capabilities, and RFID is becoming an integral element of that transformation. RFID allows logisticians to leverage new applications that enable them to see and manage the supply chain from end-to-end and not be limited by stovepipe systems. RFID also has the potential to revolutionize the entire supply chain by improving inventory management, asset visibility, and interoperability in an end-to-end integrated environment while maintaining the data accuracy advantages of various types of automatic identification technology (AIT). With the ongoing efforts to expand the application of RFID technology, Acting Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics, Michael Wynne, issued a memo on October 2, 2003, which delineated an extensive plan for RFID tracking at all packaging levels and on high-value individual assets. The goal was to reduce stock and improve forecasting through "Total Asset Visibility" (TAV). This was later followed by the Acting Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics outlining the policy for the use of RFID within DoD in a memorandum released in July 2004. That directive required the integration of RFID technology throughout DoD. The policy states that DoD will be an early adopter of innovative, passive RFID technology that leverages the Electronic Product Code (EPC) and compatible RFID tag. By January 2005, DoD required its suppliers to use RFID tags on shipments to the Defense Distribution Depot in Susquehanna (New Cumberland), Pennsylvania (DDSP), and the Defense Distribution Depot San Joaquin (Tracy and Lathrop), California (DDJC). According to DoD Chief Logistics Auto-ID Technology Officer, Edward W. Coyle, DoD moves $28.9 billion worth of material through its pipeline annually, and is positioning itself to leverage RFID to achieve full visibility and management of assets throughout its supply chain. Within DoD, the FISC, Norfolk, Ocean Terminal Division has been the vanguard for activities implementing passive RFID and is currently using RFID tags to process all shipments except household goods. Classified shipments are processed by the division at a separate remote site, and outsized shipments are processed in a storage area outside.
DDJC is equipped with RFID readers and the required supporting infrastructure, and has been accepting pallets and cases with passive ultra high frequency (UHF) RFID tags based on EPC specifications since January 2005. They have only partially implemented RFID in their business processes. RFID technology provides a range of capabilities that enable the automatic capture of source data and enhances the ability to identify, track, document, and control deploying and redeploying forces, equipment, personnel, and sustainment cargo. RFID is a foundational technology on the path to improving asset visibility, data accuracy, and inventory management within DoD. The History of RFID Implementation in DoD: DoD interest in RFID dates back to World War II, when radio waves were used to determine whether approaching planes belonged to their allies or their enemies. In October 2003, the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics issued the policy which directed the first phase of the mandate, which directed the use of high data capacity RFID use in the DoD operational environment, and required suppliers to place passive RFID tags on the lowest possible piece part/case/pallet packaging by January 2005. Next, Mr. Alan Estevez, Assistant Deputy Under Secretary of Defense, Supply Chain Integration, took the lead to facilitate the implementation of the RFID policy when he held a RFID Policy Kick-off meeting which served as the organizational meeting for the DoD RFID Integrated Product Team (IPT) and three subordinate working groups: Business Process, Technical and Implementation, and Implementation and Oversight. By December 2003, the first DoD RFID Summit for Industry was conducted, the intent of which was to discuss DoD RFID policy, engage suppliers, and begin the process of implementation. In February 2004, the policy was updated to include the Policy Principles for use of Passive RFID Technology in the DoD Supply Chain. Then the 2004 RFID Industry Summit for Industry was held and brought together industry and government representatives for presentations and discussions on RFID policy, progress on implementation, industry applications, and lessons learned. Shortly thereafter, in July 2004, the final RFID policy for implementing RFID across the DoD was published, and it codified the business rules for active RFID and implementation of passive RFID. In addition to publishing its policy, DoD selected two DLA depots, Defense Distribution Depot Susquehanna, PA (DDSP) and San Joaquin, California for initial implementation, with the primary objective of preparing the sites to receive tagged material beginning January 1, 2005. This pilot program was the beginning of phase one and tested the effectiveness of using passive RFID tags to enhance asset visibility and management.
DoD Supply chain:
End-to-End RFID enabled DoD Supply Chain:
The RFID-enabled receiving process began with tagged cases and pallets being read as they were received through the receiving dock doors, and individual parcel cases were read after being placed on conveyor belts. The tag data was then used to establish the “tail-gate” date, at which point the agency assumes ownership and responsibility for the supplies and becomes the starting point of the payment cycle. To complete the loop, the RFID data was reconciled against serialized Advanced Shipment Notices (ASN) which resulted in improved order fulfillment accuracy and inventory visibility. Testing of tags and readers continued
throughout 2004 to determine the optimal configuration for tag read accuracy and later that year, the focus shifted to software for device, data, and process management. Effective November 14, 2005, DoD issued a final rule amending the Defense Federal Acquisition Regulation Supplement50 (DFARS) to include its new policy which applies to package marking with passive radio frequency identification (RFID) tags. The policy requires contractors to affix passive RFID tags at the case and palletized unit load levels when shipping packaged operational rations, clothing, individual equipment, tools, personal demand items, or weapon system repair parts to the Defense Distribution Depots in Susquehanna, PA or San Joaquin, CA. The second phase of the RFID mandate began in January 2006 and included the tagging of cases and pallets of subsistence and comfort items, petroleum, chemicals, ammunition, and pharmaceuticals, to name a few, that will be shipped to 32 depots and two DLA distribution centers. Commodities in the following Classes of Supply required RFID tags to be placed on all individual cases, all cases packaged within palletized unit loads, and all palletized unit loads: • Class I – Subclass – Packaged Operational Rations • Class II – Clothing, Individual Equipment, and Tools • Class III(P) – Packaged Petroleum, Lubricants, Oils, Preservatives, Chemicals & Additives • Class IV – Construction & Barrier Equipment • Class VI – Personal Demand Items • Class VIII –Medical Materials (excluding Pharmaceuticals) • Class IX – Weapon Systems Repair Parts and Components. Phase 3, was scheduled to commence in January 2007, and this required suppliers to tag cases and pallets of all goods dispatched to the various DoD locations. This phase of the mandate required DoDs logistics systems involved in shipping, receiving, and inventory management to use RFID to perform business transactions. This mandate created enormous implications and challenges for more than 43,000 DoD suppliers.55 The mandate also required the use of an EPC tag numbering scheme in addition to DoD tag data constructs for encoding and applied to both its top suppliers and small businesses.
Advancing RFID technology within DoD : During the 1990s, DoD became interested in RFID in an effort to address its supply chain challenges. DoD has since become very active in RFID research and development in an effort to improve asset visibility, inventory management, security, and quality control. Today, all DoD components use RFID. In 2004, DoD joined EPCGlobal™ in piloting a program using active and passive RFID tags attached to Meals, Ready-To-Eat (MRE) combat rations under the Combat Feeding Program. DoD traced the rations from the vendor to the consuming unit through several supply chain participants and locations. Since MREs are packaged in foil, reading the tags posed many challenges as the metal made it difficult to read the tags. Additionally, DoD utilized active tags to track the temperature variations in order to get a better determination of the final shelf-life of the MREs. This gives DoD the ability to track the quality of material in several key classes, especially ordnance and perishables.
The Air Force has evaluated TransCore eGo RFID transponder tags and readers as part of an automatic vehicle identification (AVI) and access control system at Hanscom AFB, MA, for future base security applications. The Army also tested a similar system for access control at Fort Monmouth, NJ, for the U.S. Army Communications-Electronics Command, Research, Development and Engineering Center, Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate. DoD has been using high data capacity active RFID tags for over a decade for in-transit asset visibility of air pallets and intermodal freight containers; and up until Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan, the Army had been the principal user of RFID technology. RFID technology is also used to facilitate “in the box” visibility by providing a full content manifest for sea-land vans or air shipment pallets. This is important in theater since the shipping information can be read in the field using a handheld interrogator. A variety of fixed or mobile interrogators are located at airports, airfields, distribution centers, and depots or in other areas where in-transit visibility is required. The Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory (MCWL), in collaboration with Marine Corps Systems Command and the Navy Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, is developing a prototype system to enhance casualty evacuation. The system is intended to ease locating casualties for evacuation and to provide treatment record consistency utilizing the Tactical Medical Coordination System (TacMedCS). This system uses passive RFID technologies to automate some of the casualty evacuation process. It is a wristband which contains a passive electronic longitudinal evacuation record, utilizes non-physical contact data transmission and storage media, and uplinks casualty information to a web-based server. Ultimately, DoD plans to use RFID as an integral part of a comprehensive suite of AITs which would allow accurate and hands-free data collection. The goal is to build a fully integrated, adaptive entity that uses state-of-the-art enabling technologies and advanced management information systems to automate routine functions – all of this in addition to achieving accurate and timely in-transit, in-storage, and in-repair asset visibility with the least amount of human intervention. RFID is a foundational technology on the path to achieving this vision as DoD moves toward a single, seamless, responsive enterprise visibility network that will be accessible across the network backbone and usable by both people and systems throughout the supply chain. DoD’S vision for RFID DoD and the services acknowledge that there are many benefits associated with RFID technology, and RFID benefits are usually seen in the areas of inventory management and visibility, operational improvements, shrinkage, and asset tracking. In addition to these benefits, DoD and the services have their own vision for applying RFID technology in their programs. According to Assistant Deputy Under Secretary of Defense, Supply Chain Integration Mr. Alan F. Estevez: The end state for the DoD supply chain is to be a fully integrated adaptive entity that leverages state-of-the-art enabling technologies and advanced management information systems to automate routine functions and achieve accurate and timely in-transit, in-storage, and in-repair asset visibility with the least human intervention.
RFID technology will also be a critical part of a very comprehensive suite of automatic identification technologies that are currently being used to provide accurate, hands-free data capture – all in an effort to support the various business processes that DoD is incorporating in its supply chain enterprise. The suite includes, but is not limited to, the following technologies: • Linear bar codes • Two-dimensional (2D) bar codes • Optical memory cards (OMCs) • RFID tags • Satellite-tracking systems. RFID Implementation by DoD’s Suppliers: A number of DoD suppliers, including Boeing, Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, GE Transportation, and Raytheon, have tested RFID or are running pilot projects in order to comply with DoD’s RFID policy. In mid 2005, Boeing became the first defense contractor to support the DoD RFID initiative when they began utilizing RFID technology to improve their management of receipt of goods from the defense industry. Using the data for a shipment of F-15 parts, Boeing transmitted data electronically through DoD’s e-commerce system, Wide Area Workflow. Although the use of this technology is not yet a contractual requirement, Boeing believes RFID will increase product value and tracking ability. "With that in mind, Boeing decided to move ahead with proving the technology and in support of the DoDs direction," says Steve Georgevitch, Boeing Supply Chain Manager. Eventually, Boeing says, RFID will result in reduced costs and quicker delivery, with total asset visibility the goal. Likewise, Lockheed Martin, a major U.S. defense contractor, will use Zebra equipment and supplies to create smart labels for items it ships to DoD as they prepare for the DoD RFID mandate. In August 2005, they launched two major RFID pilots within the internal supply chains of their aeronautic and maritime business units. The maritime pilot was an in-depot operation that would RFID tag and track certain military ship parts made by the company. This supply chain begins with broken or faulty parts being sent back to the company for repair. Lockheed’s second aeronautic pilot tracked products for military aircraft, ranging from fighter jets to utility planes, using RFID. The process included tagging the products at a receipt facility, where they then move to an inventory warehouse and on to a kitting facility for assembly into production kits, after which they move to the production floor.
Reference a. b. c. d. e. f.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-frequency_identificationhttp://msdn.microsoft.comhttp://www.zdnetasia.com/news/communications/0,39044192,62017060,00.htmhttp://www.microsoft.com/industry/retail/businessvalue/rfidoverview.mspxhttp://www.abiresearch.com/products/market_research/The_RFID_Transportation_Ma rkethttp://www.industryweek.com/ReadArticle.aspx?ArticleId=13325
g.http://www.transcore.com/enabling-technologies-overview/rfid/transpo-vssupply1.html h.http://www.foodproductiondaily.com/Supply-Chain/BT-launches-RFID-food-networkfor-tracking-products i.http://www.gaorfid.com/oil_gas/ j.http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/4508/1/1/ k.http://www.rfidlibrary.com/ l.http://news.cnet.com/RFID-tags-become-hacker-target/2100-1029_3-5287912.html
doc_451848878.docx
The doc explain in detail on complete report on RFID.
RFID- RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION
Introduction Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) continues to evolve as a major technology for tracking goods and assets around the world. RFID uses radio waves to identify 'things' automatically and in real time. For the supply chain and operations it provides increased levels of product and asset visibility. For example, it can help hospitals track and locate expensive equipment more quickly to improve patient care. Retailers are looking at using the technology to automatically receive shipments, and have greater visibility into the merchandize in the back rooms and on the store shelves. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) see RFID as a compelling technology to prevent the introduction of counterfeit drugs and biologics into the U.S. drug distribution chain. Wal-Mart and the Department of Defense (DoD), along with some other major retailers, now require their suppliers to begin RFID-tagging pallets and cases that are shipped into their selected distribution centers and stores. These mandates are about to impact a large number of manufacturers and distributors around the world. While businesses are looking to use the technology in many scenarios across various industries, the retailer mandates are the main driving force behind the current interest in the technology.
RFID: Technology Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is an automatic identification method, relying on storing and remotely retrieving data using devices called RFID tags or transponders. The technology requires some extent of cooperation of an RFID reader and an RFID tag. An RFID tag is an object that can be applied to or incorporated into a product, animal, or person for the purpose of identification and tracking using radio waves. Some tags can be read from several meters away and beyond the line of sight of the reader. Most RFID tags contain at least two parts. One is an integrated circuit for storing and processing information, modulating and demodulating a radio-frequency (RF) signal, and other specialized functions. The second is an antenna for receiving and transmitting the signal. There are generally two types of RFID tags: active RFID tags, which contain a battery, and passive RFID tags, which have no battery. Future Chipless RFID allows for discrete identification of tags without an integrated circuit, thereby allowing tags to be printed directly onto assets at a lower cost than traditional tags. As of now none of the chipless concepts has become operational.
Types of Tags: Also called transponders, these can be either active, with their own means of sending a signal, or passive, relying upon the tag reader to provide the power necessary to generate the response signal. The signal could be a simple identification number stored in a read-only tag, or a complex data stream that includes additional data stored within the tag's memory. These more complex tags could contain such data items as manufacture date, lot number, serial number, or even built-in sensors to track average storage temperatures or other data.
1. Passive Tags Passive RFID tags have no internal power supply. The minute electrical current induced in the antenna by the incoming radio frequency signal provides just enough power for the CMOS integrated circuit in the tag to power up and transmit a response. Most passive tags signal by backscattering the carrier wave from the reader. This means that the antenna has to be designed both to collect power from the incoming signal and also to transmit the outbound backscatter signal. The response of a passive RFID tag is not necessarily just an ID number; the tag chip can contain non-volatile data, possibly writable EEPROM for storing data. 2. Active Tags Unlike passive RFID tags, active RFID tags have their own internal power source, which is used to power the integrated circuits and to broadcast the response signal to the reader. Communications from active tags to readers is typically much more reliable (i.e. fewer errors) than those from passive tags due to the ability for active tags to conduct a "session" with a reader. 3. Semi-passive Tags
Semi-passive tags are similar to active tags in that they have their own power source, but the battery only powers the microchip and does not power the broadcasting of a signal. The response is usually powered by means of backscattering the RF energy from the reader, where energy is reflected back to the reader as with passive tags. An additional application for the battery is to power data storage. 4. Beacon Tags Beacon tags blink the coded identity signal at a regular pattern. This may be a constant blink rate or a blink rate with stochastic shift or some triggered blinking. Not to activate the responder function in a tag first prevents from limiting the speed capabilities and improves the availability of the identification information under noisy conditions. 5. Zombie Tags One of the main concerns with RFID tags is that their contents can be read by anyone with an appropriately equipped scanner - even after you take it out of the store. One technology that has been suggested is a zombie RFID tag, a tag that can be temporarily deactivated when it leaves the store. The process would work like this: you bring your purchase up to the register, the RFID scanner reads the item, you pay for it and as you leave the store, you pass a special device that sends a signal to the RFID tag to "die." That is, it is no longer readable. The "zombie" element comes in when you bring an item back to the store. A special device especially made for that kind of tag "re-animates" the RFID tag, allowing the item to reenter the supply chain.
Readers Also called interrogators, these come in various configurations depending on the location, environment, and scanning area coverage required. A reader is used to identify all tags within its reception coverage area. Readers require some intelligence for aggregating and smoothing the tag data.
Fig: Reader and Tag
Information transmitted from the tag can be interpreted by reading the data directly from the reader itself or through a software–based interface. RFID tags can come in numerous forms with different capabilities, including: ? Key fobs (active read/write). ? Bulk metal tags (use-once passive read-only). ? Garment disks (reusable active read-only). ? Smart Card credit-cards with RFID tags embedded for storing personal information. Today every RFID implementation is different; all RFID solutions have to evaluate various performance and cost factors, including the operating environment, on-tag memory storage, and signal transmission restrictions. Each of these issues has significant cost impacts on both tags and readers. In addition, RFID solutions in the market today are generally proprietary in nature, and tags from one vendor cannot generally be read by a reader from a different vendor. There are some limited RFID standards in place; however, these standards are not globally accepted, and some even conflict with RFID standards in other countries.
EPC: Electronic Product Code One of the driving forces in RFID adoption is the emergence of Electronic Product Code (EPC) concepts. In 1998 researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) proposed a system-level approach to automatic object identification to solve interoperability issues and reduce the related hardware and software costs. The MIT Auto-ID Center realized that the key to low-cost RFID technology was to focus on reducing functionality on the tag by storing a unique identifier, called an Electronic Product Code (EPC), that acts as a license plate, pointing to more information of the tagged item stored in a data base. This makes the tag simple, improving the read rates. They also realized that developing global standards to allow interoperability is key to driving adoption and reducing tag prices.
EPC Global network In 2003, the research and intellectual property from the MIT Auto-ID Center was transferred to a joint venture between EAN International and the UCC; this new organization is now called EPCglobal. It is a non-profit organization driving the global adoption and implementation of the EPCglobal Network across industry sectors. EPCglobal develops and oversees standards for the Electronic Product Code (EPC) Network. Additionally, EPCglobal provides a global EPC number registry service for electronic product codes. The EPC Network begins with the Electronic Product Code (EPC). Essentially, the EPC is the electronic equivalent of the UPC barcode. It is a string of characters that uniquely identifies any tagged item. However, instead of referring to a class of products, like UPCs do today, the EPC refers to a specific instance of product. In essence the EPC is a single ID built upon smaller IDs that represent the manufacturer, product identification (or model), and a serial number for that particular item.
The EPC is embedded in a RFID tag, primarily a low cost passive read-only tag on individual products or cases. When a reader scans each tag, it will transmit back its unique EPC code. This is done with little to no manual effort required compared to the work required to open boxes and align a barcode with its visual scanner. The EPC tag standard does not preclude other tags with read-write functionality or even more advanced capabilities. However, as additional tag functions and capabilities increase, so do the related manufacturing costs for that tag.
Object Naming Service and EPC IS The EPC works together with the Object Naming Service (ONS). The ONS matches the EPC ID to a location on the Internet (or possibly the intranet) that provides additional information about that particular object. ONS is based in part on the Internet's existing Domain Name System (DNS), which routes information requests to appropriate Internet locations. For a given EPC the ONS Framework will point to the EPC Information Service that contains the information for that EPC. The following diagram illustrates the various steps.
Figure 2. EPC routing. 1. The manufacturer creates a product, and records it with its local EPC IS. 2. The local EPC IS informs the global EPC IS Discovery service that a tag read is registered. 3. The manufacturer sends the tagged product to the retailer, and the retailer registers the receipt with its local EPC IS. 4. The retailer's local EPC IS registers the tag read with the global EPC IS Discovery service.
5. The retailer requires the product information, so it queries the Root ONS that is deployed by EPC Global. 6. The Root ONS points to the appropriate manufacturer's local ONS that points to the manufacturer's EPC IS. 7. The retailer connects with the manufacturer's EPC IS and gets the required information. This is the proposed data flow by EPC Global. However, most of the retailers and manufacturers prefer closed-loop systems where they do not have to connect with global registries for information. Many RFID applications, such as those used by the military, may happen in environments where internet connectivity is rare. Instead of registering tag reads with a global service, businesses may adopt a more transactional approach. Those businesses that see value in open-loop systems, and are eager to track product movement through the enterprise and share data among the supply chain constituents, are keen to use existing B2B networks. In such scenarios, the information flow may be quite different than that in a closed loop.
Regulation and standardizations There is no global public body that governs the frequencies used for RFID. In principle, every country can set its own rules for this. The main bodies governing frequency allocation for RFID are: ? USA: FCC (Federal Communications Commission) ? Canada: CRTC (Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission) ? Europe: ERO, CEPT, ETSI, and national administrations (note that the national administrations must ratify the usage of a specific frequency before it can be used in that country) ? Malaysia: Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC) ? Japan: MIC (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications) ? China: Ministry of Information Industry ? Taiwan: NCC (National Communications Commission) ? South Africa: ICASA ? South Korea: Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy ? Australia: Australian Communications and Media Authority. ? New Zealand: Ministry of Economic Development ? Singapore: Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore ? Brazil: Anatel (Agência Nacional de Telecomunicações) Some standards that have been made regarding RFID technology include: ? ISO 14223/1 – Radio frequency identification of Animals, advanced transponders – Air interface ? ISO 14443: This standard is a popular HF (13.56 MHz) standard for HighFIDs which is being used as the basis of RFID-enabled passports under ICAO 9303. ? ISO 15693: This is also a popular HF (13.56 MHz) standard for HighFIDs widely used for non-contact smart payment and credit cards.
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ISO/IEC 18000: Information technology — Radio frequency identification for item management: o Part 1: Reference architecture and definition of parameters to be standardized o Part 2: Parameters for air interface communications below 135 kHz o Part 3: Parameters for air interface communications at 13.56& MHz o Part 4: Parameters for air interface communications at 2.45 GHz o Part 6: Parameters for air interface communications at 860-960 MHz o Part 7: Parameters for active air interface communications at 433 MHz ISO 18185: This is the industry standard for electronic seals or "e-seals" for tracking cargo containers using the 433 MHz and 2.4 GHz frequencies. EPCglobal – this is the standardization framework that is most likely to undergo International Standardization according to ISO rules as with all sound standards in the world, unless residing with limited scope, as customs regulations, air-traffic regulations and others. Currently the big distributors and governmental customers are pushing EPC heavily as a standard well-accepted in their community, but not yet regarded as for salvation to the rest of the world. ASTM D7434, Standard Test Method for Determining the Performance of Passive Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Transponders on Palletized or Unitized Loads ASTM D7435, Standard Test Method for Determining the Performance of Passive Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Transponders on Loaded Containers
Problems and Concerns 1. Global standardization The frequencies used for RFID in the USA are currently incompatible with those of Europe or Japan. Furthermore, no emerging standard has yet become as universal as the barcode. 2. Security/ Privacy Concern A primary RFID security concern is the illicit tracking of RFID tags. Tags which are worldreadable pose a risk to both personal location privacy and corporate/military security. Such concerns have been raised with respect to the United States Department of Defense's recent adoption of RFID tags for supply chain management. A second class of defense uses cryptography to prevent tag cloning. Some tags use a form of "rolling code" scheme, wherein the tag identifier information changes after each scan, thus reducing the usefulness of observed responses. Cryptographic protocols attempt to achieve privacy against unauthorized readers. One major challenge in securing RFID tags is a shortage of computational resources within the tag.
3. Exploits Ars Technica Reported in March 2006 an RFID buffer overflow bug that could infect airport terminal RFID Databases for baggage, and also Passport databases to obtain confidential information on the passport holder. 4. Passports In an effort to make passports more secure, several countries have implemented RFID in passports. However, the encryption on UK chips was broken in les than 48 hours. Since that incident, further efforts have allowed researchers to clone passport data while the passport is being mailed to its owner. Where a criminal used to need to secretly open and then reseal the envelope, now it can be done without detection, adding some degree of insecurity to the passport system.
Controversy
Privacy: The benefits offered by RFID provide a compelling case for deployment within the supply chain. However, organizations must be mindful of privacy issues surrounding the technology. Most RFID deployments are supply-chain applications, such as tagging for shipping containers or pallets. These do not associate personally identifiable information (PII) with tag identification (EPC) numbers. However, with item-level tagging, unique identification numbers in EPCglobal tags might become associated with an individual at the point of sale (POS) when the tagged product, such as an item of clothing, is acquired. Industrial application of RFID
1. Retail Industry Imagine a shopping cart equipped with a scanner and a touch-screen computer that acts as a virtual personal shopper. As you scan items and put them in your cart, the computer offers information about each product and suggests complementary items. The computer keeps a list of the items in your cart with a running total so you know exactly how much you're spending. When finished shopping, you head to a self-checkout stand or to a cashier. Because your items are already totaled and bagged, the wait time is minimal. All you have to do is pay.
The power behind this hassle-free shopping experience is radio frequency identification (RFID) technology. RFID is helping retailers around the world improve customer satisfaction and increase sales. The technology is transforming the retail industry by offering retailers real-time visibility into inventory and product movement to improve store productivity and loss prevention. Many of the world's largest retailers have mandated RFID tagging. This move affects more than 200,000 manufacturers and suppliers, driving the worldwide market for hardware and software to support RFID. RFID can help the retail sector in the following ways: RFID improves inventory management Improving customer service Boosting customer loyalty 2. Pharmaceutical Industry Drug Counterfeiting Pharmaceutical companies, distributors, and hospitals need technology to deter drug counterfeiting. The World Health Organization estimates that between 5 to 8 percent of global pharmaceuticals are counterfeit. In some countries, the percentage of counterfeit drugs is significantly higher at between 25 to 40 percent. Thus, the pharmaceutical industry reports that it loses $2 billion per year due to counterfeit drugs. Counterfeit drugs adversely affect people’s lives by preventing patients from receiving needed medication. Fortunately, RFID/EPC tags can help detect products that are: • Counterfeit or fake • Tampered with, adulterated or substituted • Unacceptable (i.e., expired, discarded, returned, recalled, etc.)4
Clinical Trials The pharmaceutical drug approval process is rigorous and dependent on meticulous documentation. As new drugs go through the clinical trial phase, accurately tracking patient usage is crucial. RFID technology can improve the tracking of drug usage throughout the clinical-phase testing protocols. Improved tracking and accountability can improve the reliability and speed of the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) drug approval process.
Inventory Management Manufacturers and distributors need improved visibility throughout the supply chain to gain an accurate account of inventory. Lack of visibility of customer orders results in increased inventory because healthcare practitioners often keep buffer stocks to avoid stock outs. Increased inventory visibility could reduce buffer stocks by substituting knowledge for inventory, thereby reducing total inventory costs.
3. Healthcare sector Medical Device and Asset Tracking RFID has strong application potential with medical device companies. The FDA requires medical device companies to be able to identify each unit by serial number. Medical device companies need better control of implants on consignment with hospitals because returns can occur more than 50 percent of the time. RFID technology that improves visibility into returns could enable faster redeployment since the company would know sooner when an unused product could be returned. Surgical instruments and other devices must be properly cleaned and packaged between uses. Tags on the instruments and readers on the sterilization chambers and storage cabinets can validate proper cleaning and help locate needed instruments. Since medical devices are often mounted on portable carts, smart tags placed on the devices and readers installed in the doorways can enable personnel to quickly locate a crucial piece of equipment and immediately determine its fitness for use. Similarly, catastrophic errors would be completely traceable from manufacture to use, and preventative maintenance on equipment could be more accurately tracked. Patient Tracking Patient identification and location assistance are often needed to ensure patient safety when urgent medical attention is needed. Patient tags with RFID chips will meet this need. Product Tracking Hospitals currently have to track radioactive isotopes throughout the facility from storage to transport and then from administration to disposal. RFID tags and readers can automate these tasks thereby saving time and resources. Active RFID tags with read/write capabilities can be used to detect seal integrity for containers and individual packages. The tag can record the time and duration of seal loss, allowing even problems that occur mid-shipment to be detected. Inventory Management Large amounts of inventory typically can be found in hospital operating rooms. Lack of visibility in the supply chain coupled with the unauthorized purchase of certain items often results in the proliferation of “unofficial” inventory that could be reduced by properly managing the materiel ordering process. RFID technology can provide an accurate account of both official and unofficial inventory levels. Proper diagnosis of the problem will drive the implementation of corrective solutions. 4. Transportation Industry In the transportation and logistics industries, RFID is found in a wide array of applications, as more companies begin conducting new pilots and implementations. Even applications within the same market may differ drastically from one another. RFID in transportation and logistics industry has found its bulk application in: airlines and airports, postal services courier services as well as in railways.
The Midland, Mich.-based chemical and plastics producer already has implemented an RFID system combined with global positioning system technology for its rail fleet and will begin another pilot program for intermodal containers this year.
5. Supply chain management RFID promises to revolutionize supply chains and usher in a new era of cost savings, efficiency and business intelligence. The potential applications are vast as it is relevant to any organization engaged in the production, movement or sale of physical goods. This includes retailers, distributors, logistics service providers, manufacturers and their entire supplier base, hospitals and pharmaceuticals companies, and the entire food chain. It has the potential to improve efficiency and visibility, cut costs, deliver better asset utilisation, produce higher quality goods, reduce shrinkage and counterfeiting, and increase sales by reducing out-of-stocks. It can even help improve the safety of the food and pharmaceuticals we buy.
Impact of RFID and potential applications: Industrial perspective 1. 2. 3. 4. Replacing barcodes Telemetry Identification of patients and hospital staff Eliminate sampling Method
Challenges faced by RFID Technology: Indian Context Indian IT companies and techies are doing their precious bit in promoting radio frequency identification (RFID) in their country, as industries, government authorities, libraries, shopping
malls and transport systems worldwide step up their use of the technology. Yet, in the world's second most populous nation, RFID continues to be a concept--waiting to be put to practice. 1. Indian companies are much smaller than some of their western counterparts and lack the scale to justify large-scale rollouts of RFID. 2. Another barrier is the absence of mandates, established either by large market players such as Wal-Mart in the United States and Metro Group in Germany, or regulatory bodies such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 3. Another deterrent to wider RFID adoption is cost.
RFID Implementation in Wal?Mart’s
Wal?Mart’s primary reason for implementing RFID in their supply chain is to improve efficiency and cut costs in their rather complex distribution system. This increase profitability and competitiveness as they gain better control over their inventory. According to Wal?Mart’s RFID chief Ron Moser, around 2 percent of the retail giant’s lost sales are due to the simple fact a store has run out of an item, but 41 percent of lost sales are due to inventory problems. In these cases, an item was located in the store, but was not placed on the proper shelf, or was sitting in a storage room. If RFID can fix just 10 percent of that problem, then Wal?Mart will gain $287 million per year by avoiding lost sales. Using the data from RFID tags, Wal?Mart can monitor stock levels in real?time and prevent human error. They have also begun to use the technology to track purchasing patterns, and then advise suppliers on more cost?efficient methods of delivery. (For instance, if most people buy three two?packs of socks, Wal?Mart can advise the sock?maker to save money by packaging socks in sets of six.) Suppliers can view their items’ RFID data by using Wal?Mart’s Retail Link extranet site.
Wal?Mart’s Requirements for Supply Chain RFID Tracking Wal?Mart has been relentless in their pursuit of RFID tagging in the supply chain. Each year, more suppliers are required to comply. In addition, Wal?Mart has changed their tag specifications to reflect changes in the EPC standards. EPC (Electronic Product Code) Tagging Wal?Mart requires all RFID tags to be EPCglobal Gen2 tags. This means that the supplier must enroll with EPCglobal, Inc., which assigns and maintains Electronic Product Code (EPC)s in its Object Naming Registry. EPCglobal often refers to EPCs as “compact license plates” that uniquely identify objects in the supply chain. The EPC is divided into numbers that identify the manufacturer and product type. In addition, the EPC incorporates a serial number to identify unique items. Each EPC number contains: • Header, which identifies the length, type, structure, version, and generation of EPC. • Manager Number, which identifies the company or company entity. • Object Class, similar to a stock?keeping unit (SKU). • Serial Number, which is the specific instance of the Object Class being tagged.
Above is an illustration of how an EPC number is created. This method is useful in many ways, because it connects back to previous tracking technology in the form of the GTIN(Global Trade Item Number). Data Synchronization Requirements: Wal?Mart will require suppliers to update GTIN information via Retail Link prior to releasing tagged shipments. Since EPCs include the GTIN, this means all suppliers must be GTIN compliant or order to send and receive EPC data. Also, as part of sending and receiving GTIN information, data must be synchronized through Global Data Synchronization Network (GDSN ? UCCNet). Wal?Mart also requires that the data must be accurate. Wal-Mart has already learned through RFID pilots that 40% to 50% of its out-of-stocks occur on the weekend, and up to 60% of missed sales occur between 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. The tags can also be used in the manufacturing process. It can help suppliers become more efficient, and the tags will help companies on both ends know where their products are at all times. Wal-Mart is pushing it most aggressively to its suppliers. Wal-Mart says the technology will help it keep costs low, which it can pass on to its shoppers. It is unrealistic to categorically say all products that are shipped into the Wal-Mart distribution centers can be read 100% of the time. Part of the reason is physics. Metals reflect the radiofrequency waves that are part of RFID, and liquids absorb them. A result is that tags are more difficult to read. RFID tags on packages in the middle of a pallet also are difficult to read.
Implementation of RFID in The United States Department Of Defence (DoD) The United States Department of Defense (DoD) operates the largest active RFID system in the world. For almost a decade active RFID technology has been in use within DoD, most notably during Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom when it was placed on major items and consolidated cargo moving into the theater to provide in-transit visibility to Commanders. Among the services, the Army was the first to install active, data rich RFID technology at selected sites around the world in order to track containers through the logistics pipeline and to provide stand-off visibility of container contents. Fixed interrogators installed at key nodes read RFID tags attached to pallets or containers and provided data to a regional server prior to passing the data to the global asset visibility systems. Active RFID technology has also been used for in-transit visibility (ITV) applications on major end-items and consolidated cargo moving via the Defense Transportation System (DTS). The current DoD environment for use of active RFID encompasses all services, agencies, and Combatant and Supporting Commands to provide the ITV necessary for the proper exercise of statutory Directive Authority for Logistics. In direct contrast to DoD, the commercial sector has been using both active and passive RFID technologies since the 1980s. The most easily recognized form of RFID has been those systems used in toll road applications such as EZ-Pass, and on the retail side, theft prevention systems such as EAS (electronic article surveillance). DoD is in the midst of a fundamental transformation of its logistics capabilities, and RFID is becoming an integral element of that transformation. RFID allows logisticians to leverage new applications that enable them to see and manage the supply chain from end-to-end and not be limited by stovepipe systems. RFID also has the potential to revolutionize the entire supply chain by improving inventory management, asset visibility, and interoperability in an end-to-end integrated environment while maintaining the data accuracy advantages of various types of automatic identification technology (AIT). With the ongoing efforts to expand the application of RFID technology, Acting Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics, Michael Wynne, issued a memo on October 2, 2003, which delineated an extensive plan for RFID tracking at all packaging levels and on high-value individual assets. The goal was to reduce stock and improve forecasting through "Total Asset Visibility" (TAV). This was later followed by the Acting Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics outlining the policy for the use of RFID within DoD in a memorandum released in July 2004. That directive required the integration of RFID technology throughout DoD. The policy states that DoD will be an early adopter of innovative, passive RFID technology that leverages the Electronic Product Code (EPC) and compatible RFID tag. By January 2005, DoD required its suppliers to use RFID tags on shipments to the Defense Distribution Depot in Susquehanna (New Cumberland), Pennsylvania (DDSP), and the Defense Distribution Depot San Joaquin (Tracy and Lathrop), California (DDJC). According to DoD Chief Logistics Auto-ID Technology Officer, Edward W. Coyle, DoD moves $28.9 billion worth of material through its pipeline annually, and is positioning itself to leverage RFID to achieve full visibility and management of assets throughout its supply chain. Within DoD, the FISC, Norfolk, Ocean Terminal Division has been the vanguard for activities implementing passive RFID and is currently using RFID tags to process all shipments except household goods. Classified shipments are processed by the division at a separate remote site, and outsized shipments are processed in a storage area outside.
DDJC is equipped with RFID readers and the required supporting infrastructure, and has been accepting pallets and cases with passive ultra high frequency (UHF) RFID tags based on EPC specifications since January 2005. They have only partially implemented RFID in their business processes. RFID technology provides a range of capabilities that enable the automatic capture of source data and enhances the ability to identify, track, document, and control deploying and redeploying forces, equipment, personnel, and sustainment cargo. RFID is a foundational technology on the path to improving asset visibility, data accuracy, and inventory management within DoD. The History of RFID Implementation in DoD: DoD interest in RFID dates back to World War II, when radio waves were used to determine whether approaching planes belonged to their allies or their enemies. In October 2003, the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics issued the policy which directed the first phase of the mandate, which directed the use of high data capacity RFID use in the DoD operational environment, and required suppliers to place passive RFID tags on the lowest possible piece part/case/pallet packaging by January 2005. Next, Mr. Alan Estevez, Assistant Deputy Under Secretary of Defense, Supply Chain Integration, took the lead to facilitate the implementation of the RFID policy when he held a RFID Policy Kick-off meeting which served as the organizational meeting for the DoD RFID Integrated Product Team (IPT) and three subordinate working groups: Business Process, Technical and Implementation, and Implementation and Oversight. By December 2003, the first DoD RFID Summit for Industry was conducted, the intent of which was to discuss DoD RFID policy, engage suppliers, and begin the process of implementation. In February 2004, the policy was updated to include the Policy Principles for use of Passive RFID Technology in the DoD Supply Chain. Then the 2004 RFID Industry Summit for Industry was held and brought together industry and government representatives for presentations and discussions on RFID policy, progress on implementation, industry applications, and lessons learned. Shortly thereafter, in July 2004, the final RFID policy for implementing RFID across the DoD was published, and it codified the business rules for active RFID and implementation of passive RFID. In addition to publishing its policy, DoD selected two DLA depots, Defense Distribution Depot Susquehanna, PA (DDSP) and San Joaquin, California for initial implementation, with the primary objective of preparing the sites to receive tagged material beginning January 1, 2005. This pilot program was the beginning of phase one and tested the effectiveness of using passive RFID tags to enhance asset visibility and management.
DoD Supply chain:
End-to-End RFID enabled DoD Supply Chain:
The RFID-enabled receiving process began with tagged cases and pallets being read as they were received through the receiving dock doors, and individual parcel cases were read after being placed on conveyor belts. The tag data was then used to establish the “tail-gate” date, at which point the agency assumes ownership and responsibility for the supplies and becomes the starting point of the payment cycle. To complete the loop, the RFID data was reconciled against serialized Advanced Shipment Notices (ASN) which resulted in improved order fulfillment accuracy and inventory visibility. Testing of tags and readers continued
throughout 2004 to determine the optimal configuration for tag read accuracy and later that year, the focus shifted to software for device, data, and process management. Effective November 14, 2005, DoD issued a final rule amending the Defense Federal Acquisition Regulation Supplement50 (DFARS) to include its new policy which applies to package marking with passive radio frequency identification (RFID) tags. The policy requires contractors to affix passive RFID tags at the case and palletized unit load levels when shipping packaged operational rations, clothing, individual equipment, tools, personal demand items, or weapon system repair parts to the Defense Distribution Depots in Susquehanna, PA or San Joaquin, CA. The second phase of the RFID mandate began in January 2006 and included the tagging of cases and pallets of subsistence and comfort items, petroleum, chemicals, ammunition, and pharmaceuticals, to name a few, that will be shipped to 32 depots and two DLA distribution centers. Commodities in the following Classes of Supply required RFID tags to be placed on all individual cases, all cases packaged within palletized unit loads, and all palletized unit loads: • Class I – Subclass – Packaged Operational Rations • Class II – Clothing, Individual Equipment, and Tools • Class III(P) – Packaged Petroleum, Lubricants, Oils, Preservatives, Chemicals & Additives • Class IV – Construction & Barrier Equipment • Class VI – Personal Demand Items • Class VIII –Medical Materials (excluding Pharmaceuticals) • Class IX – Weapon Systems Repair Parts and Components. Phase 3, was scheduled to commence in January 2007, and this required suppliers to tag cases and pallets of all goods dispatched to the various DoD locations. This phase of the mandate required DoDs logistics systems involved in shipping, receiving, and inventory management to use RFID to perform business transactions. This mandate created enormous implications and challenges for more than 43,000 DoD suppliers.55 The mandate also required the use of an EPC tag numbering scheme in addition to DoD tag data constructs for encoding and applied to both its top suppliers and small businesses.
Advancing RFID technology within DoD : During the 1990s, DoD became interested in RFID in an effort to address its supply chain challenges. DoD has since become very active in RFID research and development in an effort to improve asset visibility, inventory management, security, and quality control. Today, all DoD components use RFID. In 2004, DoD joined EPCGlobal™ in piloting a program using active and passive RFID tags attached to Meals, Ready-To-Eat (MRE) combat rations under the Combat Feeding Program. DoD traced the rations from the vendor to the consuming unit through several supply chain participants and locations. Since MREs are packaged in foil, reading the tags posed many challenges as the metal made it difficult to read the tags. Additionally, DoD utilized active tags to track the temperature variations in order to get a better determination of the final shelf-life of the MREs. This gives DoD the ability to track the quality of material in several key classes, especially ordnance and perishables.
The Air Force has evaluated TransCore eGo RFID transponder tags and readers as part of an automatic vehicle identification (AVI) and access control system at Hanscom AFB, MA, for future base security applications. The Army also tested a similar system for access control at Fort Monmouth, NJ, for the U.S. Army Communications-Electronics Command, Research, Development and Engineering Center, Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate. DoD has been using high data capacity active RFID tags for over a decade for in-transit asset visibility of air pallets and intermodal freight containers; and up until Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan, the Army had been the principal user of RFID technology. RFID technology is also used to facilitate “in the box” visibility by providing a full content manifest for sea-land vans or air shipment pallets. This is important in theater since the shipping information can be read in the field using a handheld interrogator. A variety of fixed or mobile interrogators are located at airports, airfields, distribution centers, and depots or in other areas where in-transit visibility is required. The Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory (MCWL), in collaboration with Marine Corps Systems Command and the Navy Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, is developing a prototype system to enhance casualty evacuation. The system is intended to ease locating casualties for evacuation and to provide treatment record consistency utilizing the Tactical Medical Coordination System (TacMedCS). This system uses passive RFID technologies to automate some of the casualty evacuation process. It is a wristband which contains a passive electronic longitudinal evacuation record, utilizes non-physical contact data transmission and storage media, and uplinks casualty information to a web-based server. Ultimately, DoD plans to use RFID as an integral part of a comprehensive suite of AITs which would allow accurate and hands-free data collection. The goal is to build a fully integrated, adaptive entity that uses state-of-the-art enabling technologies and advanced management information systems to automate routine functions – all of this in addition to achieving accurate and timely in-transit, in-storage, and in-repair asset visibility with the least amount of human intervention. RFID is a foundational technology on the path to achieving this vision as DoD moves toward a single, seamless, responsive enterprise visibility network that will be accessible across the network backbone and usable by both people and systems throughout the supply chain. DoD’S vision for RFID DoD and the services acknowledge that there are many benefits associated with RFID technology, and RFID benefits are usually seen in the areas of inventory management and visibility, operational improvements, shrinkage, and asset tracking. In addition to these benefits, DoD and the services have their own vision for applying RFID technology in their programs. According to Assistant Deputy Under Secretary of Defense, Supply Chain Integration Mr. Alan F. Estevez: The end state for the DoD supply chain is to be a fully integrated adaptive entity that leverages state-of-the-art enabling technologies and advanced management information systems to automate routine functions and achieve accurate and timely in-transit, in-storage, and in-repair asset visibility with the least human intervention.
RFID technology will also be a critical part of a very comprehensive suite of automatic identification technologies that are currently being used to provide accurate, hands-free data capture – all in an effort to support the various business processes that DoD is incorporating in its supply chain enterprise. The suite includes, but is not limited to, the following technologies: • Linear bar codes • Two-dimensional (2D) bar codes • Optical memory cards (OMCs) • RFID tags • Satellite-tracking systems. RFID Implementation by DoD’s Suppliers: A number of DoD suppliers, including Boeing, Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, GE Transportation, and Raytheon, have tested RFID or are running pilot projects in order to comply with DoD’s RFID policy. In mid 2005, Boeing became the first defense contractor to support the DoD RFID initiative when they began utilizing RFID technology to improve their management of receipt of goods from the defense industry. Using the data for a shipment of F-15 parts, Boeing transmitted data electronically through DoD’s e-commerce system, Wide Area Workflow. Although the use of this technology is not yet a contractual requirement, Boeing believes RFID will increase product value and tracking ability. "With that in mind, Boeing decided to move ahead with proving the technology and in support of the DoDs direction," says Steve Georgevitch, Boeing Supply Chain Manager. Eventually, Boeing says, RFID will result in reduced costs and quicker delivery, with total asset visibility the goal. Likewise, Lockheed Martin, a major U.S. defense contractor, will use Zebra equipment and supplies to create smart labels for items it ships to DoD as they prepare for the DoD RFID mandate. In August 2005, they launched two major RFID pilots within the internal supply chains of their aeronautic and maritime business units. The maritime pilot was an in-depot operation that would RFID tag and track certain military ship parts made by the company. This supply chain begins with broken or faulty parts being sent back to the company for repair. Lockheed’s second aeronautic pilot tracked products for military aircraft, ranging from fighter jets to utility planes, using RFID. The process included tagging the products at a receipt facility, where they then move to an inventory warehouse and on to a kitting facility for assembly into production kits, after which they move to the production floor.
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