Description
This paper aims to discuss the prevalent trends of exploiting cultural capital such as
gastronomic legacy to ignite redevelopment of contemporary cities as illustrated in the city of George
Town, Penang, Malaysia. In the twenty-first century, cities are transforming to be creative cities as they
compete globally on the basis of their respective city branding, image and identity, as well as cultural
capital assets. The emerging importance of cultural capital complements the realms of politics,
economics and built environment in creating sustainable urban structure and ecosystem.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Branding George Town world heritage site as city of gastronomy: prospects of creative cities strategy in
Penang
Khoo Suet Leng Nurwati Badarulzaman
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Khoo Suet Leng Nurwati Badarulzaman , (2014),"Branding George Town world heritage site as city of gastronomy: prospects
of creative cities strategy in Penang", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 8 Iss 3 pp. 322
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Branding George Town world heritage
site as city of gastronomy: prospects of
creative cities strategy in Penang
Khoo Suet Leng and Nurwati Badarulzaman
Khoo Suet Leng is a
Senior Lecturer based at
Development Planning
and Management, School
of Social Sciences,
Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Penang, Malaysia.
Nurwati Badarulzaman is
a Lecturer based at
Department of Urban and
Regional Planning,
School of Housing,
Building and Planning,
Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Penang, Malaysia
Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to discuss the prevalent trends of exploiting cultural capital such as
gastronomic legacy to ignite redevelopment of contemporary cities as illustrated in the city of George
Town, Penang, Malaysia. In the twenty-?rst century, cities are transforming to be creative cities as they
compete globally on the basis of their respective city branding, image and identity, as well as cultural
capital assets. The emerging importance of cultural capital complements the realms of politics,
economics and built environment in creating sustainable urban structure and ecosystem.
Design/methodology/approach – In line with UNESCO’s creative cities network ?agship, this paper
showcases George Town’s potentials in propagating its gastronomic appeals as a strategic urban asset
to regenerate the urban economy.
Findings – This paper postulates branding George Town World Heritage Site as a creative city under
the theme of “City of Gastronomy” would successfully capture the city’s gastronomic prowess, image
and identity at the global scene.
Originality/value – Given that research in “culture and urban planning” is still at its infancy and largely
absent in the Malaysian context, this study aims to ?ll that research gap and contributes towards existing
scholarship. The ?ndings from this test bed study will bene?t key stakeholders, especially urban
policymakers (i.e. Local Council, State Government and Federal Government) towards reforming and
revolutionising contemporary urban policies towards sustainable development.
Keywords Urban planning, City branding, Branding, Cultural capital, Taiwan, City of gastronomy
Paper type Conceptual paper
1. Introduction
George Town’s renowned and well-established reputation as Malaysia’s food heaven is
widely recognised (Lim, 2005; SGP, 2011). Since time immemorial, there has been an
intrinsic link between the ?eld of gastronomy and its distinctive role and contribution
towards the culture and livelihoods of urban George Town dwellers (SGP, 2011, pp. 4-17).
Arguably, George Town’s gastronomic prowess can be considered as the city’s “cultural
capital” in her own right (Ooi, 2011). Cultural literature has highlighted the resistance of
various subcultures, including cuisine and gastronomy, to fuse with the dominant force of
culture and identity, creating their own niche area, style and identity instead (Kellner, 1999;
Scarpato, 2000). Such notion of retaining unique cultural values and authenticity augurs
well with George Town’s inscription into the UNESCO’s World Heritage List in July 2008.
Based on the UNESCO’s criteria of outstanding universal value, a city’s vibrancy, diversity
and sustainability reside not only in the political, socio-economic, natural or physical built
environment dimensions but also notably in its tangible and intangible cultural attributes
such as cuisine and gastronomy (SGP, 2011, pp. 4-17). In line with the UNESCO’s creative
cities network (CCN) “city–industry” linkage, this paper presents the prospects of branding
George Town as a creative city under the theme of “City of Gastronomy”. Such branding
would serve well to showcase George Town’s gastronomic prowess, image and identity
within the region and beyond.
Received 13 August 2012
Revised 19 February 2013
5 July 2013
10 December 2013
Accepted 10 March 2014
This paper acknowledges the
support of grant 304/PSOSIAL/
6311122.
PAGE 322 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOL. 8 NO. 3, 2014, pp. 322-332, © Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/IJCTHR-08-2012-0065
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Insofar bountiful journalistic and non-academic literature have duly recognised George
Town’s intrinsic link to gastronomy (Lim, 2005; Khoo, n.d.). However, there is little attempt
to establish the signi?cance of the city’s gastronomic value and, ultimately, rebranding
George Town as a “City of Gastronomy”. Thus, this paper is most timely to ?ll this research
gap. Nonetheless, it is crucial to mention at the onset that this is purely a conceptual paper
based on a case study approach to explore George Town’s prospect to adopt and adapt
creative cities strategies in Penang. This is achieved by means of content analysis where
key secondary literature on this topic was reviewed to understand its relevance and
applicability for the George Town context. As purported by other gastronomy scholars,
case studies are deemed appropriate for new research areas like this of which existing
theories are still inadequate (Chaney and Ryan, 2012, p. 310). Speci?cally, case studies
are well known to contextualise within “real-life” scenes which is particularly suited for this
study of George Town’s gastronomic scenario (Rowley, 2002 cited in Chaney and Ryan,
2012, p. 310). However, due to the limitations of time and manpower, the discussion from
this paper derived solely from secondary resources, namely, data collected from publicity
materials, web portals and the commentaries produced by individuals and establishments
such as Penang Global Tourism, Penang Heritage Trust, George Town World Heritage
Incorporated and such. Given the conceptual nature of this paper, the case study
approach adopted in this paper is deemed appropriate.
This paper is organised into four main sections. The literature review presents the
importance of the city and city culture in urban planning, with a particular emphasis on
gastronomic culture and its contribution as a strategic urban asset. This is followed by
deliberations on rebranding George Town as a “City of Gastronomy” and the dynamics of
stimulating George Town’s “local” identity vis-a` -vis linking and rebranding the city’s
gastronomy on a global scale. The paper concludes with pragmatic policy measures
towards establishing city rebranding strategy in George Town World Heritage Site.
2. Literature review
2.1 Cities as drivers of change
Cities have played integral and catalytic roles towards economic and social development
since early civilisations. Economic activities thrived and ?ourished in cities of ancient
Greece and Rome. Cities also served as focal points for the cultivation of cultural and civic
activities including theatres, libraries, museums and galleries (Gympel, 1996). Despite the
long-standing accolades of the role and function of cities over centuries, contemporary
cities are constantly challenged to respond effectively to new drivers of change and forces
of economic globalisation. With “creativity” being the buzzword of the twenty-?rst century’s
New Economy, voluminous literature and research have diffused the themes of creative
cities (Wood and Landry, 2008; Landry, 2006; Hospers and van Dalm, 2005), the rise of a
creative class (Florida, 2002, 2004; Bader and Bialluch, 2009) and the role of creative
industries towards city branding (Kennedy, 2009; Roodhouse, 2009; Gelder and Allan,
2006). All themes share a common denominator to construct, elevate and stimulate
creativity as the underlying economic and social factor that drives our future cities.
According to UNESCO[1], cities play three key roles in spearheading “creative” economic
development. First, cities house the entire plethora of cultural actors within the creative
industry chain ranging from creative production to consumption and distribution. Second,
cities are ideal breeding grounds for creative clusters of cultural capital with substantial
potentials to be harnessed through connecting cities for global impact. Finally, while a city’s
small size enables it to affect the local cultural industries, a city is also reasonably large to
function as gateways to global markets.
More recently, “creative” and “cities” have been synergised to coin the term “creative
cities” – a concept purported by renowned scholars such as Florida (2002, 2004) and
Landry (2006). They argue that culture plays a pivotal role in cities and should be regarded
as a viable strategy in urban regeneration. Moreover, creative industries in the broadest
VOL. 8 NO. 3 2014 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 323
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sense contribute to enhance the social fabric, cultural diversity and quality of life by
creating a sense of community and shared identity within the city (UNESCO, ibid). Thus,
policymakers should consider the vital role of creativity when planning for a sustainable
city. Cities of Brampton, Canada (Criscione, 2011), and Melbourne, Australia (Anonymous
2004a), are ?ne examples of creative cities in the making.
2.2 Importance of culture in urban planning
The importance of culture in urban planning is widely acknowledged (Anonymous, 2004b;
Khoo and Badarulzaman, 2011). According to Mercer (2006) in Cultural Planning for Urban
Development and Creative Cities, a “cultural turn” is permeating the inner structure and
economic activities of cities and towns worldwide. This notion is clearly expressed in the
UN Habitat State of the World’s Cities Report, 2004 (cited in Mercer, 2006, p. 1) as follows:
[. . .] the growing trend of refurbishing and re-branding cities as cultural havens – a creative
attempts by many local governments to revitalize economies in need of urban renewal
mechanisms [. . .]
Mercer (2006) contends that the cultural turn involved in repositioning, contextualising and
marketing of cities is a subsequent response to dramatic changes in the roles and functions
of cities vis-a` -vis the twin forces of globalisation and the new economy. Creativity, human
capital and capability for innovation are the critical traits of city survival amidst intense
global competition. Cultural dimensions in the form of cultural resources, amenities,
activities and facilities are regarded as important urban assets that should be capitalised
and leveraged in the new economy (Mercer, 2006). Culture, as a strategic urban asset, is
acknowledged by scholars and policymakers as an impetus for urban regeneration
(Anonymous, 2004b). Such a perspective has led to the inception of the creative cities
concept as a catalyst to revitalise economic decline of post-industrial cities in the USA,
Australia and Europe in the past two decades. By the same token, UNESCO has launched
a creative cities programme for both developed and developing countries to harness the
element of creativity as an unexploited opportunity to fuel urban redevelopment.
2.3 City of gastronomy as a creative cities strategy
Launched by UNESCO in October 2004, the CCN aims to promote social, economic and
cultural development of cities in both developed and developing nations. The role of human
creativity, the arts and other creative traditions is emphasised to facilitate knowledge
dissemination and cultural exchange between cities to develop local capacities and
capabilities, as well as to nurture market-diversi?ed cultural products in both domestic and
global markets. Grounded on UNESCO’s mission towards cultural diversity, cities admitted
to the network are able to share experiences, develop new opportunities and create
synergies with their global counterparts to promote creative tourism activities[2]. According
to UNESCO, this endeavour allows creative and entrepreneurial potentials of small
businesses to ?ourish and contribute signi?cantly to the new economy. Cities boasting of
small creative businesses and innovative talents are a prerequisite towards a sustainable
growth fuelled by the multi-dimensional spheres of a city’s economy, socio-cultural and
urban governance.
So far, seven themes of city-industry are earmarked under the UNESCO’s CCN. They are
city of literature, city of music, city of crafts and folk art, city of design, city of media arts and
City of Gastronomy. To date, three cities are labelled as “City of Gastronomy”, namely,
Popayan in Colombia (UNESCO, 2007), Östersund in Sweden (UNESCO, 2011a) and
Chengdu in China (UNESCO, 2011b). The UNESCO’s criteria and characteristics for cities
to be recognised as a City of Gastronomy are as follows[3]:
well-developed gastronomy that is a characteristic of the urban centre and/or region;
vibrant gastronomy community with numerous traditional restaurants and/or chefs;
endogenous ingredients used in traditional cooking;
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local know-how, traditional culinary practices and methods of cooking that have
survived industrial/technological advancement;
traditional food markets and traditional food industry;
tradition of hosting gastronomic festivals, awards, contests and other means of
recognition; and
respect for the environment and promotion of sustainable local products.
The success stories of these cities are found in “The Popayan Gastronomic Declaration –
Toward a World Union of Gastronomic Cities” which advocated a global alliance for cultural
diversity on gastronomy. Essentially, the bene?ts gained by the cities following their
declaration as a City of Gastronomy include improved health conditions and quality of life
in human beings to further enhance knowledge and skills on gastronomy. From an
economic viewpoint, these cities also bene?t considerably given the role of gastronomy as
a development tool with its wide forward and backward linkages to other sectors such as
agro, tourism, logistics, food handling, food conservation, accommodation and dining.
3. Branding George Town as City of Gastronomy
3.1 Historical legacy and place-making
On 11 August 1786, Penang was founded by Captain Francis Light as a trading post for the
British East India Company. Back then, Penang’s capital, George Town, functioned as a
port and free trade centre, and, in due time, the city of George Town attracted a multi-ethnic
community of Chinese, Indians, Burmese, Armenians, Bugis, Arabs, Malays and
Europeans. Inevitably, the presence of these diverse communities and the places and
spaces they inhabited are fundamental towards creating the pluralistic society George
Town boasts today. These early settlers established distinct ethnic neighbourhoods in inner
city George Town (PAM, 2011, pp. 13-18). Unique places, spaces and living quarters were
carved up and formed over time with the identi?cation and association of certain streets,
lanes and alleys with a particular ethnic community. This was how ethnic neighbourhoods
of George Town such as Little India, Chinatown and the Clan Jetties were created.
It is evident that the inter-ethnic assimilation and acculturation of diverse values and
cultures of these communities are re?ected historically and culturally through the food
culture and gastronomy of George Town residents. Examples of unique ethnic cuisine
include Nasi Kandar by the Tamil Muslim community, Teochew porridge by the Chinese
community and Peranakan food by the Baba Nyonyas (SGP, 2011, pp. 4-17). The
congregation of multi-ethnic communities over time in George Town has created intrinsic
linkages between place, space and cuisine. This novel concept in George Town is akin to
Jane Jacobs’ vision of “a mosaic of distinctive neighbourhoods, each with its cultural
hallmarks, cuisines, festivals and street life” (Markusen and Gadwa, 2010, p. 5). Such
cultural diversity has substantive in?uence and direct impacts towards making George
Town the place and space for food and subsequently attributable towards branding
George Town as a City of Gastronomy.
3.2 City branding
Burgeoning literature have since emerged, exploring the role of gastronomy and local
foods towards enhancing the image, branding and economic opportunities of a location
and destination (Chaney and Ryan, 2012; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Shenoy, 2005; Du Rand
et al., 2003; Boyne et al., 2003; Ab. Karim and Chua, 2014). In the context of George Town,
the city’s gastronomic culture does re?ect the identity, image and branding for the city.
Literature has af?rmed that cities of the twenty-?rst century will compete based on the
values generated and portrayed in their physical products and services, urban heritage,
aspirations and characters. In other words, global competition is based on “city branding,
image promotion and urban marketing” that they have developed and interpreted for
themselves (Costa, 2008, p. 197; Gelder and Allan, 2006, p. 25). Oftentimes, it has been
VOL. 8 NO. 3 2014 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 325
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misconstrued by the majority that a city’s identity is only expounded and portrayed through
its built form and megalithic urban icons. Nonetheless, city branding proponents argue that
the intangible aspect matters too. Principally, city brands are showcased, remembered and
enlivened through the priceless and novel experiences that they provide to consumers.
Arguably, such vivid and novel experiences would ascertain people’s perception and
impression of a city (Gelder and Allan, 2006, p. 25).
At this juncture, the fundamentals of city branding do coincide with the tenets of the CCN
which leverages on a city’s cultural creativity for urban regeneration. Branding George
Town as a City of Gastronomy is parallel with harnessing the city as a creative hub for food
which inexorably fosters socio-economic progress linking the diverse food culture of
George Town’s multi-ethnic and pluralistic communities to create healthy and sustainable
urban environment (Editorial, 2011, p. 121). The way gastronomy links with the heritage of
a city has stood the test of time as seen in the Tainan City of Taiwan (Hwang et al., 2004,
p. 224). Furthermore, city branding complements and supplements the concept of urban
culture that views a city not only as a symbol of power, culture and identity but also as a
space and place of wealth generation and accumulation (Landry, 1998, 2000 cited in
Badarulzaman and Ghafar, 2007).
3.3 Gastronomy as a strategic urban asset
As acclaimed by local historian Khoo Salma, Penang’s capital, George Town, is renowned
as the “world capital of street food” with an endless array of gastronomic delights (Khoo,
n.d.). George Town’s legendary gastronomic culture is a fundamental urban asset that
contributes towards the city’s inscription into the UNESCO World Heritage List as a historic
city on 7 July 2008. A heritage city status implies that collective efforts must be channelled
towards conserving George Town’s urban heritage in a sustainable manner and to ensure
continued urban regeneration of the city for posterity[4]. In the past, conservation of urban
heritage is misconstrued to consider only the physical and tangible items and monuments,
with reference to the (now defunct) Antiquities Act (1976) (Act 168) which emphasises on
tangibles elements such as ancient and historical monuments, archaeological sites and
remains, antiquities and historical objects. Nevertheless, since the National Heritage Act
(2005) was gazetted on 31 December 2005 and later enforced on 1 March 2006; the
intangible aspects of conservation have come to the fore[5].
The National Heritage Act (2005) encompasses three key components, namely:
1. cultural heritage which includes both tangible and intangible heritage;
2. natural heritage; and
3. underwater cultural heritage.
Under the National Heritage List, 2009, ?ve categories of national heritage are identi?ed as
follows:
1. tangible heritage objects;
2. intangible heritage objects;
3. natural heritage site;
4. cultural heritage site; and
5. the heritage of life personalities.
Interestingly, under the category of intangible heritage objects, some of Malaysia’s
gastronomic delights have received accolades as the Heritage Foods of Malaysia. In total,
400 different types of local gastronomic cuisines have been listed as heritage foods
including Nasi Kandar, Laksa Asam, Char Koay Teow and others. Furthermore, Penang’s
Asam Laksa has been voted number 7 under CNNGo International Food Survey as “foods
worth travelling the world to gorge on” (Lam, 2011). Without a doubt, the recognition of
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heritage foods under the Malaysian Heritage Acts (Malaysia, 2006) coincides with
worldwide efforts to harness creative industries as sound urban renewal strategies.
Admittedly, the inherent link between George Town’s gastronomic culture and history is a
legacy and intangible heritage that differentiates George Town from other cities. In fact,
George Town’s gastronomy was acknowledged as one of the sub-criterion listed in
Criterion (iii) of the UNESCO’s Outstanding Universal Value as follows:
Melaka and George Town are living testimony to the multi-cultural heritage and tradition of Asia,
and European colonial in?uences. This multi-cultural tangible and intangible heritage is
expressed in the great variety of religious buildings of different faiths, ethnic quarters, the many
languages, worship and religious festivals, dances, costumes, art and music, food, and daily
life.(SGP, 2011, pp. 4-1).
As expressed in George Town’s draft special area plan, food and gastronomy are part of
a living culture that makes and shapes the urban fabric of the city, especially within a
multi-ethnic and pluralistic society of George Town (SGP, 2011):
Food is a very important facet in the lifestyle of the people of Melaka and George Town. The
evolution of the local cuisine encapsulates the multi-cultural communities and their wealth of
gastronomical ?avours. Some of the food came about from socio-economic consequences,
such as Char Koay Teow, Nasi Kandar and Teochew Porridge which was originally intended to
feed the working population of the city. While communities like the Baba-Nyonyas have also
created their own specialities that represent the ?nest of their cultures. (SGP, 2011, pp. 4-17)
For instance, Nasi Kandar is a home-grown George Town’s gastronomic delight and a
cultural signature product. Nasi Kandar is synonymous, characteristic and representative
of George Town’s vibrant Indian Muslim community with its myriad of traditional restaurants
such as Line Clear Nasi Kandar, Dawood, Cravan and others in George Town. Nasi Kandar
which literally means “yoked rice” was once carried by itinerant Indian Muslim hawkers on
shoulder yokes (Khoo, n.d.). The birth of Nasi Kandar in George Town dates back to the
1900s when the Indians ?rst came to Penang. They used to work around the port and
concocted various types of curries with whatever ingredients that were available (The Star,
2009). Generally, endogenous ingredients found locally in George Town such as herbs,
spices and local produce were used in the preparation of Nasi Kandar.
Arguably, Nasi Kandar, in a modern and thriving metropolis of George Town, still preserves
and boasts the local know-how, upkeeps the traditional culinary practices and methods of
cooking despite the introduction of modern industrial and technological advancement. The
existence of food business including Nasi Kandar in George Town World Heritage Site does
trigger a spillover effect into other retailing and related businesses creating forward and
backward linkages with other food industries such as the production and sales of raw food
ingredients (SGP, 2011, pp. 5-4). In the case of the Nasi Kandar industry, traditional food
markets at Chowrasta Market and Campbell Street Market, as well as traditional herbs and
spices industries in Little India, continue to supply essential raw ingredients to Nasi Kandar
operators in the city centre. Sourcing from local suppliers coincides with UNESCO’s criteria
whereby respect for the local environment as the supply chain exists alongside the promotion
of sustainable local products, in this case, local herbs and spices. However, the ?nal criteria
where nurturing of public appreciation and inclusion of biodiversity conservation programmes
in cooking schools curricula for Nasi Kandar speci?cally are still at its infancy.
Evidently, the continuous symbiotic existence of the myriad of gastronomic delights
originating from the multi-ethnic population of George Town contributes immensely towards
establishing food culture as one of the cornerstones for promoting cultural and gastronomic
tourism in the city and beyond (SGP, 2011, pp. 5-1). George Town’s function as a unit of
gastronomic production and consumption is vital given that the city’s food industry is “an
important mainstay of the local economy”, especially for local food supply (SGP, 2011, pp.
5-4). The Penang State Government through its tourism arm, Penang Global Tourism, has
produced tourist brochures to showcase food trails, food stalls and eateries within George
VOL. 8 NO. 3 2014 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 327
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Town. Gastronomy was also showcased as a cultural heritage product during George Town
Heritage Celebration in July 2011 to commensurate the anniversary of George Town’s
World Heritage listing. Among the celebration programmes include “Nasi Kandar Food
Festival” held at Queen’s Street, George Town, to celebrate the food culture and
gastronomic legacy of the Indian Muslim community in George Town. Supported by
proactive government efforts, it is notable that private stakeholders and enterprises are
equally enthusiastic in promoting George Town’s gastronomy prowess to the world. For
instance, a local developer Ivory Properties Group Berhad decided to organise an
inaugural competition “Battle of Penang Hawkers Masters” during December 2012 to
encourage healthy rivalry amongst top Penang hawkers as well as promote Penang’s
gastronomy to the world (The Star, 2011).
3.4 Urbanisation economies and social inclusion
From an urban economic perspective, the pattern of location and concentration of hawker
stalls and food outlets in a city collectively creates a phenomenon known as “urbanisation
economies” which leverages on the positive externalities enjoyed by ?rms that are located
in the urban area (Lorenzen and Frederiksen, 2008, pp. 159). Similarly, as argued by
Badarulzaman and Ghafar (2007, p. 5) in Street Vending Activities in the Conservation
Areas of Georgetown, the “economies of specialisation” of street vendors clustered on the
streets have contributed towards the buoyancy of the local urban economy. The food
industry is undoubtedly a vital economic activity in the heartland of the city, especially in the
George Town World Heritage Site where it features a rich topography and spatial
distribution of restaurants and food stalls (SGP, 2011).
The vitality of the gastronomic business is especially visible through the ubiquitous
presence of street food hawkers occupying all realms of urban spaces and places in
George Town. There are currently ? 2,900 businesses and 830 hawkers operating in
Heritage Zone of George Town. This ?gure signi?es their substantive contribution to the
local economy and the urban workforce. Clearly, bestowing and of?cially branding George
Town as a City of Gastronomy would augur well for these hawkers. Their socio-economic
status and self-esteem may well be elevated in tandem. The once derogatory image
attached to being a hawker would eventually wane. No longer sidelined and marginalised,
this once-upon-a-time underground economic activity or more popularly known as the
informal sector would witness a shift in power relations as their existence in the urban
economy is gradually gaining importance upon George Town’s branding as a City of
Gastronomy. With this accolade, it is expected that the vast number of George Town’s food
operators in the informal sector would stand a chance to be socially included and
integrated into the mainstream urban economy.
4. Conclusions and policy implications
Over many centuries, the city of George Town boasts a colourful myriad of multi-ethnic
communities residing in proximity with each other in peace and harmony. Such a unique
blend of cultural diversity and traditions existing within the George Town inner city caught
the world’s attention when George Town’s was inscribed into the UNESCO World Heritage
listing in 2008. This important event has acted as an impetus towards urban regeneration
and the incorporation of cultural capital as an important ingredient in creative urban
planning. To this end, this paper argues that George Town, being the food heaven of
Malaysia, should leverage on the city’s diverse gastronomic legacy as a strategic urban
asset to of?cially brand George Town as a City of Gastronomy. In line with the UNESCO
CCN ?agship, this concept is deemed most appropriate for George Town to carry the
image and identity as a full-?edged City of Gastronomy. Essentially, the above analysis has
discussed the way George Town’s gastronomic landscape and characteristics have, in
fact, ful?lled the criteria required to qualify as a City of Gastronomy. This discovery augurs
well to motivate George Town to join the ranks of the other three Cities of Gastronomy.
PAGE 328 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOL. 8 NO. 3 2014
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To transform this concept into reality, concerted efforts by the Penang State Government and
related stakeholders are critical. The future direction of George Town’s gastronomic industry
should ensure a balance between production and consumption, particularly on the
organisation of factors of production (including. land, capital, assets, buildings and labour)
within the urban space to ?t this branding. From an economic perspective, the extent to which
wealth is generated, accumulated and distributed will depend largely on creative leadership in
formulating viable policies to achieve targeted urban agenda. To maintain a sense of balance
and equilibrium, all stakeholders in both public and private sectors are required to contribute
in this novel effort to strategically position and of?cially brand George Town as a City of
Gastronomy. In particular, the local/state authorities and destination marketing organisations,
as well as the private sector in George Town, should form strategic collaborations to emulate
best practices in Popayan, Östersund and Chengdu to drive and sustain a City of Gastronomy.
Admittedly, branding, identity and image do, to some extent, connote a visual appearance.
The entire infrastructure of George Town’s gastronomy industry should comply with
acceptable universal standards and quality for George Town to compete globally. Aspects
such as food outlet’s layout and design, food choice and quality, image, hygiene, amenities
and customer service should all be improved, but care should be taken to retain the
authenticity traditions of local gastronomic practices. The labour factor in the form of human
capital or creative human resources should also be upgraded in tandem. This is to ensure
that local efforts to capitalise on George Town’s gastronomic prowess run parallel with the
global principles of UNESCO’s CCN.
Nonetheless, besides highlighting George Town’s potentials as a Creative City, this paper also
acknowledges the branding challenges that the city encounters given the many stakeholders
involved and little management control as in the case of New Zealand (Morgan et al., 2003, p.
287). Mirroring the NewZealand experience, George Town also encounters a myriad of issues,
as branding a city is not a single entity but a composite of different components comprising
accommodation, hospitality, attractions, culture, heritage and even the natural environment.
The different stakeholders fromthese diverse sectors normally have little coordination amongst
themselves, thus, resulting in a fail cause towards branding George Town vis-a`-vis the city’s
closest competitors like Singapore and Bangkok. Hence, it is pivotal to adopt a partnership
approach to stakeholder management in George Town to foster creative collaboration and joint
decision-making to address problems and manage issues pertaining to securing George
Town’s positioning as a City of Gastronomy alongside Popayan and the rest.
Clearly, this aspect of strategic partnership amongst all stakeholders (i.e. policymakers,
private operators, food hawkers and tour agencies) in George Town has not been
suf?ciently examined in this study and warrants further research. Insofar, this paper only
focussed on one food (i.e. Nasi Kandar) as a ?rst small step in exploring the role of
gastronomy, hence, more comprehensive acknowledgement of how other ethnic foods (i.e.
Laksa, Char Koay Teow) ful?l the UNESCO criteria is required to support George Town’s
quest to be a City of Gastronomy. Instead of merely looking at George Town as a single site,
future studies should explore the effects of branding in multiple sites throughout Malaysia.
Similar to the situation found by Taiwanese scholars (Hwang et al., 2004, p. 234), the
implications and contribution of gastronomy towards George Town’s heritage and tourism
certainly warrant more in-depth research, as it is now only super?cially understood.
In essence, branding George Town as a City of Gastronomy is perceived as an innovative
and productive way to harness and leverage on the creative talents of food operators or
more popularly known as the urban informal sector. In this case study, the way the urban
informal sector is elevated and included into mainstream development serves as a good
reference and lesson for other development management organisations and local
authorities to emulate. To allow for subsequent political, social, economic and cultural
integration of this lower rank pro?le of the urban labour force into mainstream economy is
an ingenious strategy to capitalise on George Town’s gastronomic prowess by providing a
win–win solution for all stakeholders towards sustaining the urban economy for posterity.
VOL. 8 NO. 3 2014 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 329
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Notes
1. Why cities? (Source:http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID?36754&URL_DO?
DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION?201.html (accessed 10 May 2011)
2. What is the Creative Cities Network? (Source:http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-
URL_ID?36746&URL_DO?DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION?201.html (accessed 7 May 2011)
3. Do you have what it takes to become a UNESCO City of Gastronomy? Source:http://portal.unesco.org/
culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID?36930&URL_DO?DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION?201.html (accessed 12
May 2011)
4. Think City Sdn Bhd’s website. Source: available at: www.thinkcity.com.my/ (accessed 11 June
2012).
5. Laman web rasmi Jabatan Warisan Negara, Kementerian Penerangan, Komunikasi dan Kebudayaan.
Source:https://www.heritage.gov.my/index.php?option?com_content&view?article&id?
6&Itemid?122 (accessed 12 May 2011).
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201.html (accessed 12 May 2011).
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36754&URL_DO?DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION?201.html (accessed 10 May 2011).
Corresponding author
Khoo Suet Leng can be contacted at: [email protected]
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doc_129087586.pdf
This paper aims to discuss the prevalent trends of exploiting cultural capital such as
gastronomic legacy to ignite redevelopment of contemporary cities as illustrated in the city of George
Town, Penang, Malaysia. In the twenty-first century, cities are transforming to be creative cities as they
compete globally on the basis of their respective city branding, image and identity, as well as cultural
capital assets. The emerging importance of cultural capital complements the realms of politics,
economics and built environment in creating sustainable urban structure and ecosystem.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Branding George Town world heritage site as city of gastronomy: prospects of creative cities strategy in
Penang
Khoo Suet Leng Nurwati Badarulzaman
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Branding George Town world heritage
site as city of gastronomy: prospects of
creative cities strategy in Penang
Khoo Suet Leng and Nurwati Badarulzaman
Khoo Suet Leng is a
Senior Lecturer based at
Development Planning
and Management, School
of Social Sciences,
Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Penang, Malaysia.
Nurwati Badarulzaman is
a Lecturer based at
Department of Urban and
Regional Planning,
School of Housing,
Building and Planning,
Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Penang, Malaysia
Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to discuss the prevalent trends of exploiting cultural capital such as
gastronomic legacy to ignite redevelopment of contemporary cities as illustrated in the city of George
Town, Penang, Malaysia. In the twenty-?rst century, cities are transforming to be creative cities as they
compete globally on the basis of their respective city branding, image and identity, as well as cultural
capital assets. The emerging importance of cultural capital complements the realms of politics,
economics and built environment in creating sustainable urban structure and ecosystem.
Design/methodology/approach – In line with UNESCO’s creative cities network ?agship, this paper
showcases George Town’s potentials in propagating its gastronomic appeals as a strategic urban asset
to regenerate the urban economy.
Findings – This paper postulates branding George Town World Heritage Site as a creative city under
the theme of “City of Gastronomy” would successfully capture the city’s gastronomic prowess, image
and identity at the global scene.
Originality/value – Given that research in “culture and urban planning” is still at its infancy and largely
absent in the Malaysian context, this study aims to ?ll that research gap and contributes towards existing
scholarship. The ?ndings from this test bed study will bene?t key stakeholders, especially urban
policymakers (i.e. Local Council, State Government and Federal Government) towards reforming and
revolutionising contemporary urban policies towards sustainable development.
Keywords Urban planning, City branding, Branding, Cultural capital, Taiwan, City of gastronomy
Paper type Conceptual paper
1. Introduction
George Town’s renowned and well-established reputation as Malaysia’s food heaven is
widely recognised (Lim, 2005; SGP, 2011). Since time immemorial, there has been an
intrinsic link between the ?eld of gastronomy and its distinctive role and contribution
towards the culture and livelihoods of urban George Town dwellers (SGP, 2011, pp. 4-17).
Arguably, George Town’s gastronomic prowess can be considered as the city’s “cultural
capital” in her own right (Ooi, 2011). Cultural literature has highlighted the resistance of
various subcultures, including cuisine and gastronomy, to fuse with the dominant force of
culture and identity, creating their own niche area, style and identity instead (Kellner, 1999;
Scarpato, 2000). Such notion of retaining unique cultural values and authenticity augurs
well with George Town’s inscription into the UNESCO’s World Heritage List in July 2008.
Based on the UNESCO’s criteria of outstanding universal value, a city’s vibrancy, diversity
and sustainability reside not only in the political, socio-economic, natural or physical built
environment dimensions but also notably in its tangible and intangible cultural attributes
such as cuisine and gastronomy (SGP, 2011, pp. 4-17). In line with the UNESCO’s creative
cities network (CCN) “city–industry” linkage, this paper presents the prospects of branding
George Town as a creative city under the theme of “City of Gastronomy”. Such branding
would serve well to showcase George Town’s gastronomic prowess, image and identity
within the region and beyond.
Received 13 August 2012
Revised 19 February 2013
5 July 2013
10 December 2013
Accepted 10 March 2014
This paper acknowledges the
support of grant 304/PSOSIAL/
6311122.
PAGE 322 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOL. 8 NO. 3, 2014, pp. 322-332, © Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/IJCTHR-08-2012-0065
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Insofar bountiful journalistic and non-academic literature have duly recognised George
Town’s intrinsic link to gastronomy (Lim, 2005; Khoo, n.d.). However, there is little attempt
to establish the signi?cance of the city’s gastronomic value and, ultimately, rebranding
George Town as a “City of Gastronomy”. Thus, this paper is most timely to ?ll this research
gap. Nonetheless, it is crucial to mention at the onset that this is purely a conceptual paper
based on a case study approach to explore George Town’s prospect to adopt and adapt
creative cities strategies in Penang. This is achieved by means of content analysis where
key secondary literature on this topic was reviewed to understand its relevance and
applicability for the George Town context. As purported by other gastronomy scholars,
case studies are deemed appropriate for new research areas like this of which existing
theories are still inadequate (Chaney and Ryan, 2012, p. 310). Speci?cally, case studies
are well known to contextualise within “real-life” scenes which is particularly suited for this
study of George Town’s gastronomic scenario (Rowley, 2002 cited in Chaney and Ryan,
2012, p. 310). However, due to the limitations of time and manpower, the discussion from
this paper derived solely from secondary resources, namely, data collected from publicity
materials, web portals and the commentaries produced by individuals and establishments
such as Penang Global Tourism, Penang Heritage Trust, George Town World Heritage
Incorporated and such. Given the conceptual nature of this paper, the case study
approach adopted in this paper is deemed appropriate.
This paper is organised into four main sections. The literature review presents the
importance of the city and city culture in urban planning, with a particular emphasis on
gastronomic culture and its contribution as a strategic urban asset. This is followed by
deliberations on rebranding George Town as a “City of Gastronomy” and the dynamics of
stimulating George Town’s “local” identity vis-a` -vis linking and rebranding the city’s
gastronomy on a global scale. The paper concludes with pragmatic policy measures
towards establishing city rebranding strategy in George Town World Heritage Site.
2. Literature review
2.1 Cities as drivers of change
Cities have played integral and catalytic roles towards economic and social development
since early civilisations. Economic activities thrived and ?ourished in cities of ancient
Greece and Rome. Cities also served as focal points for the cultivation of cultural and civic
activities including theatres, libraries, museums and galleries (Gympel, 1996). Despite the
long-standing accolades of the role and function of cities over centuries, contemporary
cities are constantly challenged to respond effectively to new drivers of change and forces
of economic globalisation. With “creativity” being the buzzword of the twenty-?rst century’s
New Economy, voluminous literature and research have diffused the themes of creative
cities (Wood and Landry, 2008; Landry, 2006; Hospers and van Dalm, 2005), the rise of a
creative class (Florida, 2002, 2004; Bader and Bialluch, 2009) and the role of creative
industries towards city branding (Kennedy, 2009; Roodhouse, 2009; Gelder and Allan,
2006). All themes share a common denominator to construct, elevate and stimulate
creativity as the underlying economic and social factor that drives our future cities.
According to UNESCO[1], cities play three key roles in spearheading “creative” economic
development. First, cities house the entire plethora of cultural actors within the creative
industry chain ranging from creative production to consumption and distribution. Second,
cities are ideal breeding grounds for creative clusters of cultural capital with substantial
potentials to be harnessed through connecting cities for global impact. Finally, while a city’s
small size enables it to affect the local cultural industries, a city is also reasonably large to
function as gateways to global markets.
More recently, “creative” and “cities” have been synergised to coin the term “creative
cities” – a concept purported by renowned scholars such as Florida (2002, 2004) and
Landry (2006). They argue that culture plays a pivotal role in cities and should be regarded
as a viable strategy in urban regeneration. Moreover, creative industries in the broadest
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sense contribute to enhance the social fabric, cultural diversity and quality of life by
creating a sense of community and shared identity within the city (UNESCO, ibid). Thus,
policymakers should consider the vital role of creativity when planning for a sustainable
city. Cities of Brampton, Canada (Criscione, 2011), and Melbourne, Australia (Anonymous
2004a), are ?ne examples of creative cities in the making.
2.2 Importance of culture in urban planning
The importance of culture in urban planning is widely acknowledged (Anonymous, 2004b;
Khoo and Badarulzaman, 2011). According to Mercer (2006) in Cultural Planning for Urban
Development and Creative Cities, a “cultural turn” is permeating the inner structure and
economic activities of cities and towns worldwide. This notion is clearly expressed in the
UN Habitat State of the World’s Cities Report, 2004 (cited in Mercer, 2006, p. 1) as follows:
[. . .] the growing trend of refurbishing and re-branding cities as cultural havens – a creative
attempts by many local governments to revitalize economies in need of urban renewal
mechanisms [. . .]
Mercer (2006) contends that the cultural turn involved in repositioning, contextualising and
marketing of cities is a subsequent response to dramatic changes in the roles and functions
of cities vis-a` -vis the twin forces of globalisation and the new economy. Creativity, human
capital and capability for innovation are the critical traits of city survival amidst intense
global competition. Cultural dimensions in the form of cultural resources, amenities,
activities and facilities are regarded as important urban assets that should be capitalised
and leveraged in the new economy (Mercer, 2006). Culture, as a strategic urban asset, is
acknowledged by scholars and policymakers as an impetus for urban regeneration
(Anonymous, 2004b). Such a perspective has led to the inception of the creative cities
concept as a catalyst to revitalise economic decline of post-industrial cities in the USA,
Australia and Europe in the past two decades. By the same token, UNESCO has launched
a creative cities programme for both developed and developing countries to harness the
element of creativity as an unexploited opportunity to fuel urban redevelopment.
2.3 City of gastronomy as a creative cities strategy
Launched by UNESCO in October 2004, the CCN aims to promote social, economic and
cultural development of cities in both developed and developing nations. The role of human
creativity, the arts and other creative traditions is emphasised to facilitate knowledge
dissemination and cultural exchange between cities to develop local capacities and
capabilities, as well as to nurture market-diversi?ed cultural products in both domestic and
global markets. Grounded on UNESCO’s mission towards cultural diversity, cities admitted
to the network are able to share experiences, develop new opportunities and create
synergies with their global counterparts to promote creative tourism activities[2]. According
to UNESCO, this endeavour allows creative and entrepreneurial potentials of small
businesses to ?ourish and contribute signi?cantly to the new economy. Cities boasting of
small creative businesses and innovative talents are a prerequisite towards a sustainable
growth fuelled by the multi-dimensional spheres of a city’s economy, socio-cultural and
urban governance.
So far, seven themes of city-industry are earmarked under the UNESCO’s CCN. They are
city of literature, city of music, city of crafts and folk art, city of design, city of media arts and
City of Gastronomy. To date, three cities are labelled as “City of Gastronomy”, namely,
Popayan in Colombia (UNESCO, 2007), Östersund in Sweden (UNESCO, 2011a) and
Chengdu in China (UNESCO, 2011b). The UNESCO’s criteria and characteristics for cities
to be recognised as a City of Gastronomy are as follows[3]:
well-developed gastronomy that is a characteristic of the urban centre and/or region;
vibrant gastronomy community with numerous traditional restaurants and/or chefs;
endogenous ingredients used in traditional cooking;
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local know-how, traditional culinary practices and methods of cooking that have
survived industrial/technological advancement;
traditional food markets and traditional food industry;
tradition of hosting gastronomic festivals, awards, contests and other means of
recognition; and
respect for the environment and promotion of sustainable local products.
The success stories of these cities are found in “The Popayan Gastronomic Declaration –
Toward a World Union of Gastronomic Cities” which advocated a global alliance for cultural
diversity on gastronomy. Essentially, the bene?ts gained by the cities following their
declaration as a City of Gastronomy include improved health conditions and quality of life
in human beings to further enhance knowledge and skills on gastronomy. From an
economic viewpoint, these cities also bene?t considerably given the role of gastronomy as
a development tool with its wide forward and backward linkages to other sectors such as
agro, tourism, logistics, food handling, food conservation, accommodation and dining.
3. Branding George Town as City of Gastronomy
3.1 Historical legacy and place-making
On 11 August 1786, Penang was founded by Captain Francis Light as a trading post for the
British East India Company. Back then, Penang’s capital, George Town, functioned as a
port and free trade centre, and, in due time, the city of George Town attracted a multi-ethnic
community of Chinese, Indians, Burmese, Armenians, Bugis, Arabs, Malays and
Europeans. Inevitably, the presence of these diverse communities and the places and
spaces they inhabited are fundamental towards creating the pluralistic society George
Town boasts today. These early settlers established distinct ethnic neighbourhoods in inner
city George Town (PAM, 2011, pp. 13-18). Unique places, spaces and living quarters were
carved up and formed over time with the identi?cation and association of certain streets,
lanes and alleys with a particular ethnic community. This was how ethnic neighbourhoods
of George Town such as Little India, Chinatown and the Clan Jetties were created.
It is evident that the inter-ethnic assimilation and acculturation of diverse values and
cultures of these communities are re?ected historically and culturally through the food
culture and gastronomy of George Town residents. Examples of unique ethnic cuisine
include Nasi Kandar by the Tamil Muslim community, Teochew porridge by the Chinese
community and Peranakan food by the Baba Nyonyas (SGP, 2011, pp. 4-17). The
congregation of multi-ethnic communities over time in George Town has created intrinsic
linkages between place, space and cuisine. This novel concept in George Town is akin to
Jane Jacobs’ vision of “a mosaic of distinctive neighbourhoods, each with its cultural
hallmarks, cuisines, festivals and street life” (Markusen and Gadwa, 2010, p. 5). Such
cultural diversity has substantive in?uence and direct impacts towards making George
Town the place and space for food and subsequently attributable towards branding
George Town as a City of Gastronomy.
3.2 City branding
Burgeoning literature have since emerged, exploring the role of gastronomy and local
foods towards enhancing the image, branding and economic opportunities of a location
and destination (Chaney and Ryan, 2012; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Shenoy, 2005; Du Rand
et al., 2003; Boyne et al., 2003; Ab. Karim and Chua, 2014). In the context of George Town,
the city’s gastronomic culture does re?ect the identity, image and branding for the city.
Literature has af?rmed that cities of the twenty-?rst century will compete based on the
values generated and portrayed in their physical products and services, urban heritage,
aspirations and characters. In other words, global competition is based on “city branding,
image promotion and urban marketing” that they have developed and interpreted for
themselves (Costa, 2008, p. 197; Gelder and Allan, 2006, p. 25). Oftentimes, it has been
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misconstrued by the majority that a city’s identity is only expounded and portrayed through
its built form and megalithic urban icons. Nonetheless, city branding proponents argue that
the intangible aspect matters too. Principally, city brands are showcased, remembered and
enlivened through the priceless and novel experiences that they provide to consumers.
Arguably, such vivid and novel experiences would ascertain people’s perception and
impression of a city (Gelder and Allan, 2006, p. 25).
At this juncture, the fundamentals of city branding do coincide with the tenets of the CCN
which leverages on a city’s cultural creativity for urban regeneration. Branding George
Town as a City of Gastronomy is parallel with harnessing the city as a creative hub for food
which inexorably fosters socio-economic progress linking the diverse food culture of
George Town’s multi-ethnic and pluralistic communities to create healthy and sustainable
urban environment (Editorial, 2011, p. 121). The way gastronomy links with the heritage of
a city has stood the test of time as seen in the Tainan City of Taiwan (Hwang et al., 2004,
p. 224). Furthermore, city branding complements and supplements the concept of urban
culture that views a city not only as a symbol of power, culture and identity but also as a
space and place of wealth generation and accumulation (Landry, 1998, 2000 cited in
Badarulzaman and Ghafar, 2007).
3.3 Gastronomy as a strategic urban asset
As acclaimed by local historian Khoo Salma, Penang’s capital, George Town, is renowned
as the “world capital of street food” with an endless array of gastronomic delights (Khoo,
n.d.). George Town’s legendary gastronomic culture is a fundamental urban asset that
contributes towards the city’s inscription into the UNESCO World Heritage List as a historic
city on 7 July 2008. A heritage city status implies that collective efforts must be channelled
towards conserving George Town’s urban heritage in a sustainable manner and to ensure
continued urban regeneration of the city for posterity[4]. In the past, conservation of urban
heritage is misconstrued to consider only the physical and tangible items and monuments,
with reference to the (now defunct) Antiquities Act (1976) (Act 168) which emphasises on
tangibles elements such as ancient and historical monuments, archaeological sites and
remains, antiquities and historical objects. Nevertheless, since the National Heritage Act
(2005) was gazetted on 31 December 2005 and later enforced on 1 March 2006; the
intangible aspects of conservation have come to the fore[5].
The National Heritage Act (2005) encompasses three key components, namely:
1. cultural heritage which includes both tangible and intangible heritage;
2. natural heritage; and
3. underwater cultural heritage.
Under the National Heritage List, 2009, ?ve categories of national heritage are identi?ed as
follows:
1. tangible heritage objects;
2. intangible heritage objects;
3. natural heritage site;
4. cultural heritage site; and
5. the heritage of life personalities.
Interestingly, under the category of intangible heritage objects, some of Malaysia’s
gastronomic delights have received accolades as the Heritage Foods of Malaysia. In total,
400 different types of local gastronomic cuisines have been listed as heritage foods
including Nasi Kandar, Laksa Asam, Char Koay Teow and others. Furthermore, Penang’s
Asam Laksa has been voted number 7 under CNNGo International Food Survey as “foods
worth travelling the world to gorge on” (Lam, 2011). Without a doubt, the recognition of
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heritage foods under the Malaysian Heritage Acts (Malaysia, 2006) coincides with
worldwide efforts to harness creative industries as sound urban renewal strategies.
Admittedly, the inherent link between George Town’s gastronomic culture and history is a
legacy and intangible heritage that differentiates George Town from other cities. In fact,
George Town’s gastronomy was acknowledged as one of the sub-criterion listed in
Criterion (iii) of the UNESCO’s Outstanding Universal Value as follows:
Melaka and George Town are living testimony to the multi-cultural heritage and tradition of Asia,
and European colonial in?uences. This multi-cultural tangible and intangible heritage is
expressed in the great variety of religious buildings of different faiths, ethnic quarters, the many
languages, worship and religious festivals, dances, costumes, art and music, food, and daily
life.(SGP, 2011, pp. 4-1).
As expressed in George Town’s draft special area plan, food and gastronomy are part of
a living culture that makes and shapes the urban fabric of the city, especially within a
multi-ethnic and pluralistic society of George Town (SGP, 2011):
Food is a very important facet in the lifestyle of the people of Melaka and George Town. The
evolution of the local cuisine encapsulates the multi-cultural communities and their wealth of
gastronomical ?avours. Some of the food came about from socio-economic consequences,
such as Char Koay Teow, Nasi Kandar and Teochew Porridge which was originally intended to
feed the working population of the city. While communities like the Baba-Nyonyas have also
created their own specialities that represent the ?nest of their cultures. (SGP, 2011, pp. 4-17)
For instance, Nasi Kandar is a home-grown George Town’s gastronomic delight and a
cultural signature product. Nasi Kandar is synonymous, characteristic and representative
of George Town’s vibrant Indian Muslim community with its myriad of traditional restaurants
such as Line Clear Nasi Kandar, Dawood, Cravan and others in George Town. Nasi Kandar
which literally means “yoked rice” was once carried by itinerant Indian Muslim hawkers on
shoulder yokes (Khoo, n.d.). The birth of Nasi Kandar in George Town dates back to the
1900s when the Indians ?rst came to Penang. They used to work around the port and
concocted various types of curries with whatever ingredients that were available (The Star,
2009). Generally, endogenous ingredients found locally in George Town such as herbs,
spices and local produce were used in the preparation of Nasi Kandar.
Arguably, Nasi Kandar, in a modern and thriving metropolis of George Town, still preserves
and boasts the local know-how, upkeeps the traditional culinary practices and methods of
cooking despite the introduction of modern industrial and technological advancement. The
existence of food business including Nasi Kandar in George Town World Heritage Site does
trigger a spillover effect into other retailing and related businesses creating forward and
backward linkages with other food industries such as the production and sales of raw food
ingredients (SGP, 2011, pp. 5-4). In the case of the Nasi Kandar industry, traditional food
markets at Chowrasta Market and Campbell Street Market, as well as traditional herbs and
spices industries in Little India, continue to supply essential raw ingredients to Nasi Kandar
operators in the city centre. Sourcing from local suppliers coincides with UNESCO’s criteria
whereby respect for the local environment as the supply chain exists alongside the promotion
of sustainable local products, in this case, local herbs and spices. However, the ?nal criteria
where nurturing of public appreciation and inclusion of biodiversity conservation programmes
in cooking schools curricula for Nasi Kandar speci?cally are still at its infancy.
Evidently, the continuous symbiotic existence of the myriad of gastronomic delights
originating from the multi-ethnic population of George Town contributes immensely towards
establishing food culture as one of the cornerstones for promoting cultural and gastronomic
tourism in the city and beyond (SGP, 2011, pp. 5-1). George Town’s function as a unit of
gastronomic production and consumption is vital given that the city’s food industry is “an
important mainstay of the local economy”, especially for local food supply (SGP, 2011, pp.
5-4). The Penang State Government through its tourism arm, Penang Global Tourism, has
produced tourist brochures to showcase food trails, food stalls and eateries within George
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Town. Gastronomy was also showcased as a cultural heritage product during George Town
Heritage Celebration in July 2011 to commensurate the anniversary of George Town’s
World Heritage listing. Among the celebration programmes include “Nasi Kandar Food
Festival” held at Queen’s Street, George Town, to celebrate the food culture and
gastronomic legacy of the Indian Muslim community in George Town. Supported by
proactive government efforts, it is notable that private stakeholders and enterprises are
equally enthusiastic in promoting George Town’s gastronomy prowess to the world. For
instance, a local developer Ivory Properties Group Berhad decided to organise an
inaugural competition “Battle of Penang Hawkers Masters” during December 2012 to
encourage healthy rivalry amongst top Penang hawkers as well as promote Penang’s
gastronomy to the world (The Star, 2011).
3.4 Urbanisation economies and social inclusion
From an urban economic perspective, the pattern of location and concentration of hawker
stalls and food outlets in a city collectively creates a phenomenon known as “urbanisation
economies” which leverages on the positive externalities enjoyed by ?rms that are located
in the urban area (Lorenzen and Frederiksen, 2008, pp. 159). Similarly, as argued by
Badarulzaman and Ghafar (2007, p. 5) in Street Vending Activities in the Conservation
Areas of Georgetown, the “economies of specialisation” of street vendors clustered on the
streets have contributed towards the buoyancy of the local urban economy. The food
industry is undoubtedly a vital economic activity in the heartland of the city, especially in the
George Town World Heritage Site where it features a rich topography and spatial
distribution of restaurants and food stalls (SGP, 2011).
The vitality of the gastronomic business is especially visible through the ubiquitous
presence of street food hawkers occupying all realms of urban spaces and places in
George Town. There are currently ? 2,900 businesses and 830 hawkers operating in
Heritage Zone of George Town. This ?gure signi?es their substantive contribution to the
local economy and the urban workforce. Clearly, bestowing and of?cially branding George
Town as a City of Gastronomy would augur well for these hawkers. Their socio-economic
status and self-esteem may well be elevated in tandem. The once derogatory image
attached to being a hawker would eventually wane. No longer sidelined and marginalised,
this once-upon-a-time underground economic activity or more popularly known as the
informal sector would witness a shift in power relations as their existence in the urban
economy is gradually gaining importance upon George Town’s branding as a City of
Gastronomy. With this accolade, it is expected that the vast number of George Town’s food
operators in the informal sector would stand a chance to be socially included and
integrated into the mainstream urban economy.
4. Conclusions and policy implications
Over many centuries, the city of George Town boasts a colourful myriad of multi-ethnic
communities residing in proximity with each other in peace and harmony. Such a unique
blend of cultural diversity and traditions existing within the George Town inner city caught
the world’s attention when George Town’s was inscribed into the UNESCO World Heritage
listing in 2008. This important event has acted as an impetus towards urban regeneration
and the incorporation of cultural capital as an important ingredient in creative urban
planning. To this end, this paper argues that George Town, being the food heaven of
Malaysia, should leverage on the city’s diverse gastronomic legacy as a strategic urban
asset to of?cially brand George Town as a City of Gastronomy. In line with the UNESCO
CCN ?agship, this concept is deemed most appropriate for George Town to carry the
image and identity as a full-?edged City of Gastronomy. Essentially, the above analysis has
discussed the way George Town’s gastronomic landscape and characteristics have, in
fact, ful?lled the criteria required to qualify as a City of Gastronomy. This discovery augurs
well to motivate George Town to join the ranks of the other three Cities of Gastronomy.
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To transform this concept into reality, concerted efforts by the Penang State Government and
related stakeholders are critical. The future direction of George Town’s gastronomic industry
should ensure a balance between production and consumption, particularly on the
organisation of factors of production (including. land, capital, assets, buildings and labour)
within the urban space to ?t this branding. From an economic perspective, the extent to which
wealth is generated, accumulated and distributed will depend largely on creative leadership in
formulating viable policies to achieve targeted urban agenda. To maintain a sense of balance
and equilibrium, all stakeholders in both public and private sectors are required to contribute
in this novel effort to strategically position and of?cially brand George Town as a City of
Gastronomy. In particular, the local/state authorities and destination marketing organisations,
as well as the private sector in George Town, should form strategic collaborations to emulate
best practices in Popayan, Östersund and Chengdu to drive and sustain a City of Gastronomy.
Admittedly, branding, identity and image do, to some extent, connote a visual appearance.
The entire infrastructure of George Town’s gastronomy industry should comply with
acceptable universal standards and quality for George Town to compete globally. Aspects
such as food outlet’s layout and design, food choice and quality, image, hygiene, amenities
and customer service should all be improved, but care should be taken to retain the
authenticity traditions of local gastronomic practices. The labour factor in the form of human
capital or creative human resources should also be upgraded in tandem. This is to ensure
that local efforts to capitalise on George Town’s gastronomic prowess run parallel with the
global principles of UNESCO’s CCN.
Nonetheless, besides highlighting George Town’s potentials as a Creative City, this paper also
acknowledges the branding challenges that the city encounters given the many stakeholders
involved and little management control as in the case of New Zealand (Morgan et al., 2003, p.
287). Mirroring the NewZealand experience, George Town also encounters a myriad of issues,
as branding a city is not a single entity but a composite of different components comprising
accommodation, hospitality, attractions, culture, heritage and even the natural environment.
The different stakeholders fromthese diverse sectors normally have little coordination amongst
themselves, thus, resulting in a fail cause towards branding George Town vis-a`-vis the city’s
closest competitors like Singapore and Bangkok. Hence, it is pivotal to adopt a partnership
approach to stakeholder management in George Town to foster creative collaboration and joint
decision-making to address problems and manage issues pertaining to securing George
Town’s positioning as a City of Gastronomy alongside Popayan and the rest.
Clearly, this aspect of strategic partnership amongst all stakeholders (i.e. policymakers,
private operators, food hawkers and tour agencies) in George Town has not been
suf?ciently examined in this study and warrants further research. Insofar, this paper only
focussed on one food (i.e. Nasi Kandar) as a ?rst small step in exploring the role of
gastronomy, hence, more comprehensive acknowledgement of how other ethnic foods (i.e.
Laksa, Char Koay Teow) ful?l the UNESCO criteria is required to support George Town’s
quest to be a City of Gastronomy. Instead of merely looking at George Town as a single site,
future studies should explore the effects of branding in multiple sites throughout Malaysia.
Similar to the situation found by Taiwanese scholars (Hwang et al., 2004, p. 234), the
implications and contribution of gastronomy towards George Town’s heritage and tourism
certainly warrant more in-depth research, as it is now only super?cially understood.
In essence, branding George Town as a City of Gastronomy is perceived as an innovative
and productive way to harness and leverage on the creative talents of food operators or
more popularly known as the urban informal sector. In this case study, the way the urban
informal sector is elevated and included into mainstream development serves as a good
reference and lesson for other development management organisations and local
authorities to emulate. To allow for subsequent political, social, economic and cultural
integration of this lower rank pro?le of the urban labour force into mainstream economy is
an ingenious strategy to capitalise on George Town’s gastronomic prowess by providing a
win–win solution for all stakeholders towards sustaining the urban economy for posterity.
VOL. 8 NO. 3 2014 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 329
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Notes
1. Why cities? (Source:http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID?36754&URL_DO?
DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION?201.html (accessed 10 May 2011)
2. What is the Creative Cities Network? (Source:http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-
URL_ID?36746&URL_DO?DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION?201.html (accessed 7 May 2011)
3. Do you have what it takes to become a UNESCO City of Gastronomy? Source:http://portal.unesco.org/
culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID?36930&URL_DO?DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION?201.html (accessed 12
May 2011)
4. Think City Sdn Bhd’s website. Source: available at: www.thinkcity.com.my/ (accessed 11 June
2012).
5. Laman web rasmi Jabatan Warisan Negara, Kementerian Penerangan, Komunikasi dan Kebudayaan.
Source:https://www.heritage.gov.my/index.php?option?com_content&view?article&id?
6&Itemid?122 (accessed 12 May 2011).
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201.html (accessed 12 May 2011).
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UNESCO (2014), “Why cities?”, available at:http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID?
36754&URL_DO?DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION?201.html (accessed 10 May 2011).
Corresponding author
Khoo Suet Leng can be contacted at: [email protected]
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