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For the purpose of reconsidering arts marketing methodologies, this paper seeks to
contemplate the axiomatic foundations of alternative arts marketing scholarship, to ask what
conversation between arts and marketing they herald and to explore the consequent conceptual issues.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Before method: axiomatic review of arts marketing
Alan Bradshaw
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Alan Bradshaw, (2010),"Before method: axiomatic review of arts marketing", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
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Before method: axiomatic review of arts
marketing
Alan Bradshaw
Abstract
Purpose – For the purpose of reconsidering arts marketing methodologies, this paper seeks to
contemplate the axiomatic foundations of alternative arts marketing scholarship, to ask what
conversation between arts and marketing they herald and to explore the consequent conceptual issues.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper reviews and evaluates the arts marketing literature.
Findings – The paper develops and presents four categories of arts marketing: the consumption of art;
marketing as art; art as marketing; and marketing interpreting art.
Originality/value – The paper contributes to arts marketing paradigmatic and methodological debates
by exploring the axiomatic foundations of this nascent ?eld.
Keywords Arts, Consumption
Paper type Literature review
1. Introduction
The subject of arts marketing is alive and well. This clean bill-of-health is diagnosable via
recent texts such as Bernstein (2006), Hill et al. (2003), Kerrigan et al. (2004), Rentschler
(2007) not to mention the Hand-of-God like participation of Philip Kotler (see Kotler and
Scheff, 1997 and more recently his preface to Bernstein, 2006). Within such scholarship the
task of arts marketing can be generally taken as developing marketing tools in order to help
the art world achieve market-based goals, develop audiences and, as O’Reilly (2005, p. 585)
put its, focus ‘‘on how to get more customers to watch Shakespeare’’. Hence, this body of
literature advises artistic communities to segment audience bases, target key groups and
position their offer accordingly (Kotler and Scheff, 1997) amongst more subtle and
contextualized techniques. In encouraging art institutions to adopt a marketing solution,
such studies appear to carry the implicit assumption that marketing and arts occupy
separate domains and, in the process, the studies arguably smuggle a primitive
conceptualization of art and marketing as diametrically opposed. This article probes and
problematizes this assumption – this notional axiomatic base conceptualization – through a
review of alternative selected categories of arts marketing literatures. Problematizing the
polar distinction between arts and marketing questions the axiomatic foundations of
alternative forms of arts marketing scholarship, asks what conversation between arts and
marketing they herald and what wider conceptual and methodological issues are raised.
2. Axiomatic review
This study axiomatically reviews arts marketing assumptions, accepted propositions,
intentions and general smuggled premises that underlie the notional ?eld. At the heart of
axiomatic review is an attempt to seek and explore foundational assumptions rarely
otherwise held to scrutiny or empirical review. As Corcoran (1995, p. 57) notes axiomatic
review can lead to reorganization of accepted propositions and concepts in order to
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VOL. 4 NO. 1 2010, pp. 8-19, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/17506181011024724
Alan Bradshaw is a Senior
Lecturer based at the Royal
Holloway University of
London, Egham, UK.
Received September 2007
Revised April 2008
Accepted May 2008
The author especially
acknowledges the saintly
patience and helpfulness of
Gretchen Larsen and
Daragh O’Reilly throughout the
development of this article and
also Robin Canniford,
Jonathan Schroeder and
Janet Borgerson for their
helpful inputs. Gratitude is also
due to Avi Shankar,
Pierre McDonagh,
Morris Holbrook,
David D. Marshall, and
Tony Patterson.
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increase certainty in the propositions and clarity in the concepts. Axiomatic review carries
direct implications for developing methodology as methodology, of course, emerges from
the axiomatic inclinations of social scientists (see Burrell and Morgan, 1979). For instance, if
scholars understand art to be an affective resource to be deployed to attain organizational
goals, such as manipulating the behavior of supermarket shoppers, then this implies a
positivistic method. By contrast, if scholars understand marketing texts to be cultural objects
that emerge from creative practice, then it is appropriate to turn to methods such as those
developed in literary theory and art history to develop understandings. Axiomatic review
entails probing what art and marketing are with reference to each other.
As Corcoran (1995) notes, when axiomatic method reveals ‘‘smuggled concepts’’ the
process often ironically entails smuggling in new approaches hence axiology remains an
uncompleted venture. The present article smuggles Adorno’s (2002a) and Bourdieu’s (1984)
critiques of cultural consumption where all forms of culture – including high and low brow –
are subject to the same analytical frameworks. Therefore renaissance art is assumed to be
as relevant to the current study as Thomas Kinkade’s Hansel and Gretel wonderland, not to
mention the activities of the Central Midwest Barry Manilow Fan Club.
A literature review of selected marketing texts relating to the arts forms the basis of the
axiomatic review. In this sense, the study departs from previous studies which review how
marketing and arts intersect at the level of cultural production (Brown and Patterson, 2000;
Fillis, 2000, Schroeder, 2005b). Instead of examining artworks, academic articles are mined
for identi?able base concepts that can ground their categorization. Any project seeking to
select and review decades of diverse scholarship necessarily imposes violence upon the
texts themselves. The deeper the probing, the greater the suspicion that the ensuing
categories collapse or overlap towards the point of futility, gross over-simpli?cation and
absolute misrepresentation. Indeed the entire axiomatic process of selecting texts (whilst
ignoring many more), then seeking to strip down complex articles to base concepts, is surely
a case of asking for trouble (see Brown’s (1996a) analysis of the Hunt versus Anderson
internecine warfare for an example). However, if arts marketing is viewable a sub-?eld or
category of research in its own right, locating the base concepts that prop arts marketing up
is necessary. Hence, this article asks readers to view the violent categorizing as a
worthwhile, if somewhat painful, step towards formalizing arts marketing. The aim is to begin
a conversation rather than to dogmatically assert the ?nal word.
In this spirit, this paper presents and discusses four axiomatic categories. A perceived base
concept underpins each category: the consumption of art, the marketer as cultural reader,
the marketer as artist and marketing interpreting art.
3. The consumption of art
This ?rst category is perhaps the most obvious of all; the consumption of art is framed as
another instance of consumption. An in?uential and wide scale strand within alternative arts
marketing explores the deployment of culture as affective strategic resource. Following
Kotler’s (1974) observations regarding the development of retail atmospherics, Bruner
(1990, p. 94) surmise best the positivist spirit of inquiry; culture’s utility is akin to a ‘‘key on a
lock, activating brain processes with corresponding emotional reactions.’’ In this Clockwork
Orange-esque approach, arts marketers deploy culture to frame consumer experiences.
Early examples of such scholarship include Milliman’s (1982) studies that explore how
changing the tempo of background music in?uences the amount of money that supermarket
shoppers spend. The isolation of notional variables such as tempo continues in follow-up
studies that isolate familiarity (Yalch and Spangenberg, 1990) modality (Herrington and
Capella, 1996) in the case of music or color for visual art (Bottomley and Doyle, 2006).
However, as Oakes (2000) comments, art is consumable as a whole hence the breaking
down of art into discreet variables makes little sense and this critique helps to understand
the instances of direct contradiction within the studies (for example the con?icting ?ndings in
studies by Herrington and Capella, 1996 and Kellaris and Cox, 1989). DeNora (2003)
additionally notes that deploying culture, and music in particular, for manipulation resonates
with Adorno and Horkheimer’s (1998) culture industry thesis in which art is part of a reifying
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social order, not to mention Orwell and Huxley’s dystopian visions. The movement of enquiry
away from direct managerial application (as Holbrook (1992) describes) facilitates less
instrumentalist analyses of cultural consumption. Early examples of such scholarship
include Andreasen and Belk’s (1980) study of the predictors of attendance at the performing
arts whilst Holbrook and Schindler (1989) explore the impact of age upon musical interest
reporting, incidentally, that musical interest peaks at the age of 23.47! Recurrence in Belk’s
(1991) seminal consumer odyssey exempli?es the importance of culture in understanding
consumption. Whilst not engaging in the pursuit of measuring goat udder dimensions (see
Bradshaw and Brown, 2008), the consumer odysseyians visited various cultural locations,
such as a comedy showat a renaissance fair (featuring a mud pool) and a country n’ western
concert. This allows re?ection upon such topics as distinctions between high and lowculture
(Dugree et al., 1991) and O’Guinn’s (1991) disturbing exploration of fan culture in the Central
Midwest Barry Manilow Fan Club. Subsequent examples include Holt and Thompson’s
(2004) description of how iconic musicians such as Willie Nelson embody heroic forms of
masculinity. Maclaran (2003) argues the case for nostalgia in her commentary on a forgotten
piano in a shopping mall. Borgerson and Schroeder (2006) discuss the materiality of old
books where scribbles and dog-ears imbue meaning and sacred properties. Joy and Sherry
(2003) consider the museum experience with reference to embodied imagination and
Kozinets’ (2001) ethnography of Star Trek fans explores how cultural consumption can
create communities around shared utopian visions and mythologies.
An important analysis of such studies relating to the consumption of art emerges from
Venkatesh and Meamber (2008) who consider how the role of aesthetics in everyday
consumption ultimately aesthetizes and produces consumers as aesthetic subjects. This
insight problematizes distinctions between production and consumption, which remains an
overriding and de?ning aspect of marketing scholarship (Firat and Dholakia, 1998). Hence,
critical understandings of negotiated nexuses of both production and consumption emerge
as timely aspects of consumer culture and studies of art can take a central position in
advancing our understandings.
As Attali (1985, p. 9) argues art simultaneously exhibits three dimensions of human works:
‘‘joy for the creator, use-value for the consumer and exchange-value for the seller’’; and as
the artist may be creator, consumer and seller at once, art can be thought as a social model
in which consumption and production co-exist and are mutually constitutive. In particular the
commodi?cation of art in accordance with a production-consumption nexus emerges as
problematic; Mauss (1997) notes the societal discomfort as artistic work becomes the
copyright of a speci?c person rather than the community from which such art originates. In
sympathy with this perspective, Firat (1999, p. 289) argues:
Art, deemed to be in a different sphere than the rational and scienti?c production sphere,
presents good evidence for this system of enthusiasm for production. In modern capitalist
society, even art must become materialized and commercialized. What is now usually known as
art is not integrated into everyday living as part of life experience, but extracted, divorced or
separated from everyday life to be transformed into objects that acquire permanence to allow
economic exchange and speculation toward monetary amassment.
Hence considering the intersection of arts and marketing and culture economies emerges
as the site ‘‘par excel lance’’ for considering matters of political economy (du Gay and Pryke,
2002).
A series of empirical studies examine art as problematizing conventional production-
consumption nexuses, such as Bradshaw et al. (2005) review into how musicians playing
background music often become consumers of their own music in the face of a non-listening
‘‘audience’’. Venkatesh and Meamber (2006) explore arts as transcending the nexus due to
the postmodern phenomenon of cultural production containing the interaction and
collaboration of cultural producers, intermediaries and consumers. With the arrival of new
digital technologies, issues of collapsing nexuses are recurrent in Kozinets’ (2007)
exploration of the growing production quality and popularity of online Star Trek pirate
episodes; Schroeder’s (2007) study of the rise of snapshot aesthetics that blur the line
between popular photography and marketing strategy in an age of consumer-generated
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ads on websites like YouTube; and Giesler’s (2008) illustration of how resistance to culture as
commodity lead to Napster-lead subversion and consequent market recon?guration. In this
context, the study of arts yields powerful insights into broader issues of consumption,
markets and culture.
The examples demonstrate the distinction between arts marketing research that takes an
instrumental approach versus that which explores the consumption of art as a practice in its
own right. An increasingly dynamic and eclectic theorization de?nes the second category.
This theorization not only problematizes polarities between arts and marketing but also
throws consumption and production into the bargain. In this latter context, it becomes
possible to imagine how the location of the consumption experience at the heart of
aesthetics can provide a meaningful contribution to a wider understanding of arts and life
within consumer societies. Naturally, scholars must take care not to overstate the extent to
which marketing and consumer research owns such areas of analyses. Marketers share an
interest in culture as affect with disciplines such as social psychology, and in the less
instrumentalist approach with other disciplines such as anthropology, cultural geography
and sociology of art.
As consumer research concerns the entire spectrum of consumption it is not clear that the
studies in this review constitute a distinct ?eld. In other words, art and culture become,
perhaps, just another site of consumption to be explored using the same lens. A deeper
concern attends the ethics of those studies that seek to deploy artistic expression for
controlling affect: for example using background music in a retail environment to seek to
manipulate consumer behavior (such as Milliman, 1982). As DeNora (2003) comments from
a sociological perspective, the generally neo-positivistic scholarship primarily concerned
with developing culture as affective resource in this way are effectively in the business of
social control. By contrast, once interpretive studies lead to an abandoning of instrumentalist
agendas, an ersatz of conceptualizing becomes possible as issues of blurred
consumption-production nexuses come to the fore.
4. Marketing as art
Holt’s (2003, p. 43) comment, ‘‘Managers must get close to culture and that means looking
far beyond consumers as they are known today’’, follows a tradition of framing marketing
practice as culturally embedded. As O’Donohue (1997) notes advertising has become a rich
intertextual blend of cultural references. However, rather than suggest that marketers are
panoptic cultural readers and intermediaries, the author suggests that there are grounds for
regarding marketing practice as inherently creative and embedded in culture.
Scholars can think of marketing as participating beyond a rich dialogue with culture and the
art world. As Franks (1997) explores in his history of advertising, fromthe 1960s onwards the
industry moves away fromscienti?c application towards a more creative imperative. Distinct
from a simple model of advertisers greedily appropriating cultural expression and co-opting
art, Franks considers advertisers as inherently creative and exploring the potentials of the
advertising medium. In that context, if advertising does tend towards intertextual bricolage,
advertising mirrors, if not inspires, the practices in other cultural ?elds such as pop art
(Baudrillard, 1998) or pop music (Strange, 2002). This outcome is unsurprising as historians
trace the legitimization of advertising as a realistic career option for the artistically inclined
following the re-characterization of ?ne arts schools as design schools (Frith and Horne,
1987).
As Scott and Bradshaw (2007) argue, when the intentions of advertisers underpin analyses
of advertising content, it is clear that the advertisers understand themselves to be active
within ?elds of creative practice and, like artists, push against the boundaries of possibilities.
Hence, breakthroughs in advertising originate from creative pioneers like David Ogilvy, Bill
Bernbach, or Chiat Day. Creative intent, whilst invisible to the general public, remains a
de?ning aspect of the industry itself as revealed by studies into advertising agencies
(Hackley, 2000; Kelly et al., 2005) as well as historical reviews (Holt, 2004; Scott, 2005;
Franks, 1997). Meanwhile, as Guillet de Monthoux re?ects in interview with Venkatesh, the
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pursuit of beauty penetrates a considerable amount of marketing activity, right down to the
de?nition of market standards such as the ISO, whilst the artist and Bauhaus proponent,
Kandinsky himself, proposed the concept of market standards (Venkatesh, 2001). The same
insight applies to marketing scholarship with Brown’s (2005a) ironic literary analyses
revealing how the leading protagonists of the marketing-as-science debate nonetheless
develop highly stylized writing techniques. As Thompson (2008, p. 217) wryly comments,
‘‘Does my point seem opaque and veiled in unnecessary rhetoric circumlocutions? Perfect.’’
Brown (2001), in his history of marketing practice, argues that rather than being a scienti?c
endeavor (itself a rhetorical trick to gain credibility during the Cold War, see Tadajewski,
2006), marketing emerged from the carnivalesque aesthetics of such larger-than-life
characters as PT Barnum – the promoter of Tom Thumb and Jumbo the Elephant. Therefore
the roots of marketing practice are in the entertainment industry and from a time when
snake-oil sellers traveled town-to-town with a cast of jugglers and musicians who performed
the sales pitch as a spectacular show. Brown argues that this spirit of carnival pervades
contemporary marketing; which if we follow advertising messages, continues its ‘‘Greatest
Show on Earth’’, ‘‘once-in-a-lifetime’’, ‘‘lean mean grilling machine’’ self-presentation.
Beyond Barnum and snake-oil, during the late 19th century the link between sales and
aesthetics was well established with Walter Benjamin’s (2002) analysis of Parisian retailing
providing a wonderful case in point. In her history of advertising, Odih (2007) notes the
aesthetics of medieval European adverts and Holbrook and Hirschman (1993, p. 2) go as far
back as possible and claim, ‘‘the use of signs in art – and therefore, the intimate relationship
between the study of signs and consumer aesthetics – extends back as far as the history of
humanity itself’’. Hence, historically informed research generally concludes that the market
is an inherently aesthetic site. Meanwhile, those who direct their gaze towards the future also
see an aesthetically driven market with Schroeder (2002) arguing that the twenty-?rst
century will bring the realization of the aesthetic economy.
As Brown (2001) and Tadajewski (2006) explore, the drive of gaining the kudos of science
have included a will towards de-emphasising and jettisoning marketing’s creative roots
despite the fact that studies into marketing practice (such as Kelly et al., 2005; Hackley,
2000; Holt, 2004) regularly emphasize the creativity found therein. The intention here is not to
reclaim marketing as an art world (following a Becker’s, 1982 framing of an art world) or to
declare that marketers were always artists, but to consider the scope of the historical
evidence which problematize polarities between art and marketing. Rather than see
marketers as outsiders looking in, the author frames marketing practice as a ?eld that can be
inherently and fundamentally creative.
Marketing scholarship often carries a very aesthetic dimension. Just as Dennis and
Macaulay (2007) point to jazz improvisation as the role model for marketing
decision-making, Holbrook (1992) argues that jazz improvisation with its negotiation of
thesis and antithesis is the model for developing marketing theory. According to Holbrook
(1992), the consumer research experiential turn necessitates re-consideration of the form of
representation of emotions and requires a lyrical form of writing. Similarly, by the mid-1990s
the concurrent postmodern turn yields a crisis of representation (see Stern, 1998). In that
spirit and in?amed ?n-de sie` cle anxiety, Brown (1996a) predicted that the ?eld was about to
enter its third phase in which marketing achieves realization as art. Since then consumer
research and marketing literature appears as dance (Brown, 2002), poetry (Guillet
de-Monthoux, 2006), ?lm (Belk and Kozinets, 2005), a gripping murder mystery thriller
(Brown, 2006a), radiography (Bradshaw et al, 2005), theatre (McDonagh and Prothero,
1996) all the way to a doctoral thesis written in the formof a discussion between a lobster and
the sea (Canniford, 2006). Meanwhile the spirit of data-collection is now open to such
creative possibilities as introspection which emerges from a romantic literary tradition
(Holbrook, 1992) and a good old-fashioned road-trip (Belk, 1991).
5. Art as marketing
If marketing contains aspects of artistic endeavor, then the opposite holds that artistic
practice contains elements of marketing. Historical accounts of great artistic epochs
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demonstrate the extent to which artists exist, and sometimes thrive, within commercial
infrastructures (e.g., see Schroeder and Borgerson’s, 2002 review of the commerciality of
the Renaissance, Elias’s, 1993 accounts of Mozart’s commercial activity). Just as embracing
a scienti?c discourse leads marketers to abandon an aesthetic dimension, the adoption of a
bohemian ideology that insists artists must live a life of anti-nomianism leads artists to
discursively abandon commerciality (Griff, 1960; Becker, 1991).
Yet this abandonment of commerciality is contradictory (see Steinert, 2003 for a historical
discussion into this fundamental contradiction of art) as even bohemian artists sooner or
later have to eat. Instead, artists typically enact a complex balancing act of retaining artistic
integrity but also carving out a living (Bradshaw et al., 2006). Whilst often seeking to
de-emphasize or distract attention away from commerciality, artists can become very
wealthy nonetheless, for example see the enormous prices that contemporary artists such
as Damien Hirst command (Thompson, 2008). Ironically artists can ?nd a market by railing
against marketing, or as Heath and Potter (2005) argue, anti-commercialism sells. This
contradictory state is at the heart of Holt’s (2002) dialectical analysis of branding; Holt
contends that anti-corporate messages are often popular within postmodern consumption
as they address consumer suspicion and alienation. In this sense, the dialectical condition of
brands seems to mirror the dialectical condition of artistry.
Instead of simply learning from how artists negotiate contradictory demands, artists can at
times produce enough money to imply that they are the real business maestros after all. As
Brown (2005b, p. 8) notes, while the billions generated by the Harry Potter franchise may
seemlike peanuts in comparison to the super-brands, the fortune is nonetheless ‘‘better than
a poke in the eye with a sharp broomstick’’. The entertainment industry, with an emphasis
upon subjectivity, creativity, and instinct is where Brown suggests marketers ought to take
their cues from. Schroeder (2005b) details how artists too develop a recognizable look,
name and style – or as he puts it – a brand. (Schroeder, 2000). Even the great masters are
adept as business practitioners at deploying strategic devices such as scandal In this spirit
a series of case studies explore the marketing supremacy of artists such as Cindy Sherman,
Andy Warhol, and Barbara Kruger (Schroeder, 2005a), Frank Lloyd Wright, Vincent Van
Gogh, Salavador Dali (Fillis, 2000), James Joyce (Patterson and Brown, 2000), Tracy Emin,
Damien Hirst (O’Reilly, 2005) and J.K. Rowling and Dan Brown (Brown, 2006b). Such artists
can be labeled as culturepreneurs, in that they have ‘‘adopted strategies of intensive media
management in order to promote themselves as cultural or art brands, and thereby their own
commercial success’’ (O’Reilly, 2005, p. 583) or as authorepreneurs in that they have an,
exceptionally strong sense of what the market wants (Brown, 2006b). However, Schroeder
and Salzer-Morling (2006) warns against over-extending towards the market, citing Kinkade
as a glorious case of aesthetics awry. Outside of marketing, the idea that business can gain
from artists has strong currency within organizational studies with texts by Linstead and
Ho¨ p? (2000) and Guillet de Monthoux (2004) providing excellent examples.
6. Marketing interpreting art
The opening of the subject ?eld to creative and aesthetically driven perspectives brings the
opportunity to turn to the study of arts itself. Whilst Belk (1986) argues that artistic offerings
can be used to gain fresh insights into consumption, Holbrook and Grayson (1986) lay down
the real esprit de corps in their seminal interpretation of the ?lm Out of Africa. Embracing the
spirit of JFK, Holbrook and Grayson (1986) contend that scholars should ask not what
semiotics can do for consumer research, but what consumer research can do for aesthetics
and interpret how symbolic consumption is used in Out of Africa to convey artistic meaning.
Holbrook and Hirschman, 1993 (extend this method to other texts, including the TV series
Dallas and the movie, Gremlins). Holbrook (2004, 2005a, b, 2008) returns to the JFK-esque
mission and pioneers the method of ambi-diegetic and music analysis in order to explore the
use of soundtrack in plot development. Brown (1997) contributes to such discourse by
offering reviews of pulp ?ction and interprets Harry Potter as a celebration of marketing
activity (Brown, 2005a,b). Schroeder and Borgerson (2002) review the commerciality of
Renaissance art whilst Schroeder (2002) argues that people nowconsume aesthetic objects
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as part of an ‘‘image economy’’ which leads to an understanding of art within a much
broader consumption-scape.
The idea that consumer researchers can contribute to the analysis of artistic texts results in
the idea that scholars should review marketing texts using cultural lens and the implicit
assumption that the marketing text is a cultural object. Schroeder (2002) argues the case for
consumer researchers to be equipped with knowledge of art history and thus armed,
provides an analysis of a Calvin Klein advert with reference to Dutch group portraiture and
contemporary androgyny discourse. Elsewhere literary criticism yields in?uential
perspectives from Stern (1989) who argued that scholars can view advertisements as
meaningful cultural artefacts. Hence, literary critical analyses of Ivory Flakes adverts reveal a
complex portrait of the American woman as a consumer of products, advertising and
culture. Stern include gendered readings of advertising texts as part of a feminist
postmodern approach (Stern, 1993), a discussion of the dramatic structure of adverts in
order to affect persuasion through the elicitation of empathy and sympathy (Stern, 1994),
and a discussion of the extensive use of myths within advertising texts (Stern, 1995).
Meanwhile, Scott (1990, 1994a, b) deepens the conversation between consumer research
and literary theory by revealing the role of musical and visual rhetoric in advertising and also
by adapting reader-response theory to consumer research. By successfully conducting
literary theory and art history analyses of adverts, Stern, Scott and Schroeder alliteratively
demonstrate the extent to which people encounter marketing texts in a way directly
comparable to how they encounter artistic artefacts, once again revealing the cultural form
of marketing. Not only should subjects like art history and literary theory come to the fore as
scholars seek to interpret, understand and locate brand references to culture, but scholars
should think of the condition of branding as fundamentally linked to the aesthetic condition of
contemporary living in a brand culture (see Schroeder and Salzer-Morling, 2006; Venkatesh
and Meamber, 2006, 2008).
7. Conclusions and discussions
This paper provides an axiomatic analysis of four categories of arts marketing. The process
reveals a series of underpinning concepts including art as affective resource for strategic
deployment by marketers, consuming art as a process that transgresses standard market
organization, the possibility that marketing is organically aesthetic and vice versa; and, by
implication, that scholars can use arts methods to regard marketing texts. All overlap in their
ultimate implication – that polar divisions between art and marketing are conceptually
problematic. Yet despite the aesthetic condition, unease prevails with such dialectical
terms as ‘‘arts marketing’’, ‘‘culture industry’’, ‘‘culture economy’’, ‘‘culturepreneur’’, ‘‘brand
culture’’, and ‘‘aesthetic economy’’ as members of the artistic community retain a sense of
alienation from commercial logic (Kubacki and Croft, 2004; Bradshaw et al., 2006). For
example, the Burning Man founder, Larry Harvey, reacted angrily to Kozinets’ analysis of the
branding of the event (seehttp://kozinets.net/archives/category/burning-man), reminding all
that talk of a ?uid inter?ow between aesthetics and business may be premature.
Clearly the binary separation is misleading and representative of ideological and historical
processes. What does this polarity achieve? According to Brown (1996b, p. 260) marketers
striving for the gravitas of science do not produce better scholarship or the respect of the
scienti?c academy, but have ‘‘rendered us philosophically blind, intellectually deaf and
spiritually debilitated’’. Meanwhile for the art world it is said that the inability to respond to the
market can destroy artistic movements (Kotler and Scheff, 1997), leaves artists broke
(Abbing, 2002), and, at worst leads to heroin-fuelled self-destruction (Bradshaw and
Holbrook, 2007). Whilst Adorno (Adorno, 2002b, p. 109) argues that for culture to remove
itself from business is to remove itself ‘‘from the naked necessity of life’’, at the opposite
extreme for art to surrender itself to the totalizing logic of commodi?cation is surely to submit
to a destiny of one-dimensionality (Marcuse, 2002). Rather than see these poles – art as
pure, commerce as alienating – as diametrical opposites, the dialectical tension between
the poles may lead to the creative tensions and contradictions that drive artists forward
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along tight-rope balancing acts and can be inherently creatively productive itself (Bradshaw
et al., 2006).
This distinction between arts and marketing historically emerges with both sides actively
framing themselves by jettisoning aspects of the other. As studies by Desmond et al. (2000),
Kearney (2002) and du Gay and Pryke (2002) re?ect this creation of identity as antithesis can
stunt identities. Hence studies exploring the potential of the artistic creative spark to inform
organizational practice implicitly assume that this spark is necessarily absent; that the
business world includes soulless men in grey-?annel-suits and that artists are somehow
genetically modi?ed creatures inherently incapable of commercial venture. Equally, studies
seeking marketing solutions for cultural institutions are in danger of reproducing these
axiomatic assumptions. By contrast, in this literature review studies that interrogate
axiomatic distinctions between art and marketing generate a ?ow of re-discovery and
mutually energizing implications. Probing the axiomatic foundations of arts marketing
reveals issues extending far beyond the improvement of cultural institutions’ market
performance; these foundations exist at a much more essential level.
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Corresponding author
Alan Bradshaw can be contacted at: [email protected]
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This article has been cited by:
1. François Colbert, Yannik St-James. 2014. Research in Arts Marketing: Evolution and Future Directions. Psychology & Marketing
31:10.1002/mar.2014.31.issue-8, 566-575. [CrossRef]
2. Kim Lehman, Mark Wickham. 2014. Marketing orientation and activities in the arts-marketing context: Introducing a Visual
Artists’ Marketing Trajectory model. Journal of Marketing Management 30, 664-696. [CrossRef]
3. Aaron TkaczynskiFestival Performance (FESTPERF) Revisited: Service Quality and Special Events 227-235. [Abstract] [Full
Text] [PDF] [PDF]
4. Stephen Brown. 2011. And then we come to the brand: academic insights from international bestsellers. Arts Marketing: An
International Journal 1:1, 70-86. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
5. Noel Dennis, Gretchen Larsen, Michael Macaulay. 2011. Editorial: terraforming Arts Marketing. Arts Marketing: An
International Journal 1:1, 5-10. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
6. Ian Fillis. 2011. The evolution and development of arts marketing research. Arts Marketing: An International Journal 1:1, 11-25.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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doc_762873447.pdf
For the purpose of reconsidering arts marketing methodologies, this paper seeks to
contemplate the axiomatic foundations of alternative arts marketing scholarship, to ask what
conversation between arts and marketing they herald and to explore the consequent conceptual issues.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Before method: axiomatic review of arts marketing
Alan Bradshaw
Article information:
To cite this document:
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Before method: axiomatic review of arts
marketing
Alan Bradshaw
Abstract
Purpose – For the purpose of reconsidering arts marketing methodologies, this paper seeks to
contemplate the axiomatic foundations of alternative arts marketing scholarship, to ask what
conversation between arts and marketing they herald and to explore the consequent conceptual issues.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper reviews and evaluates the arts marketing literature.
Findings – The paper develops and presents four categories of arts marketing: the consumption of art;
marketing as art; art as marketing; and marketing interpreting art.
Originality/value – The paper contributes to arts marketing paradigmatic and methodological debates
by exploring the axiomatic foundations of this nascent ?eld.
Keywords Arts, Consumption
Paper type Literature review
1. Introduction
The subject of arts marketing is alive and well. This clean bill-of-health is diagnosable via
recent texts such as Bernstein (2006), Hill et al. (2003), Kerrigan et al. (2004), Rentschler
(2007) not to mention the Hand-of-God like participation of Philip Kotler (see Kotler and
Scheff, 1997 and more recently his preface to Bernstein, 2006). Within such scholarship the
task of arts marketing can be generally taken as developing marketing tools in order to help
the art world achieve market-based goals, develop audiences and, as O’Reilly (2005, p. 585)
put its, focus ‘‘on how to get more customers to watch Shakespeare’’. Hence, this body of
literature advises artistic communities to segment audience bases, target key groups and
position their offer accordingly (Kotler and Scheff, 1997) amongst more subtle and
contextualized techniques. In encouraging art institutions to adopt a marketing solution,
such studies appear to carry the implicit assumption that marketing and arts occupy
separate domains and, in the process, the studies arguably smuggle a primitive
conceptualization of art and marketing as diametrically opposed. This article probes and
problematizes this assumption – this notional axiomatic base conceptualization – through a
review of alternative selected categories of arts marketing literatures. Problematizing the
polar distinction between arts and marketing questions the axiomatic foundations of
alternative forms of arts marketing scholarship, asks what conversation between arts and
marketing they herald and what wider conceptual and methodological issues are raised.
2. Axiomatic review
This study axiomatically reviews arts marketing assumptions, accepted propositions,
intentions and general smuggled premises that underlie the notional ?eld. At the heart of
axiomatic review is an attempt to seek and explore foundational assumptions rarely
otherwise held to scrutiny or empirical review. As Corcoran (1995, p. 57) notes axiomatic
review can lead to reorganization of accepted propositions and concepts in order to
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VOL. 4 NO. 1 2010, pp. 8-19, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/17506181011024724
Alan Bradshaw is a Senior
Lecturer based at the Royal
Holloway University of
London, Egham, UK.
Received September 2007
Revised April 2008
Accepted May 2008
The author especially
acknowledges the saintly
patience and helpfulness of
Gretchen Larsen and
Daragh O’Reilly throughout the
development of this article and
also Robin Canniford,
Jonathan Schroeder and
Janet Borgerson for their
helpful inputs. Gratitude is also
due to Avi Shankar,
Pierre McDonagh,
Morris Holbrook,
David D. Marshall, and
Tony Patterson.
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increase certainty in the propositions and clarity in the concepts. Axiomatic review carries
direct implications for developing methodology as methodology, of course, emerges from
the axiomatic inclinations of social scientists (see Burrell and Morgan, 1979). For instance, if
scholars understand art to be an affective resource to be deployed to attain organizational
goals, such as manipulating the behavior of supermarket shoppers, then this implies a
positivistic method. By contrast, if scholars understand marketing texts to be cultural objects
that emerge from creative practice, then it is appropriate to turn to methods such as those
developed in literary theory and art history to develop understandings. Axiomatic review
entails probing what art and marketing are with reference to each other.
As Corcoran (1995) notes, when axiomatic method reveals ‘‘smuggled concepts’’ the
process often ironically entails smuggling in new approaches hence axiology remains an
uncompleted venture. The present article smuggles Adorno’s (2002a) and Bourdieu’s (1984)
critiques of cultural consumption where all forms of culture – including high and low brow –
are subject to the same analytical frameworks. Therefore renaissance art is assumed to be
as relevant to the current study as Thomas Kinkade’s Hansel and Gretel wonderland, not to
mention the activities of the Central Midwest Barry Manilow Fan Club.
A literature review of selected marketing texts relating to the arts forms the basis of the
axiomatic review. In this sense, the study departs from previous studies which review how
marketing and arts intersect at the level of cultural production (Brown and Patterson, 2000;
Fillis, 2000, Schroeder, 2005b). Instead of examining artworks, academic articles are mined
for identi?able base concepts that can ground their categorization. Any project seeking to
select and review decades of diverse scholarship necessarily imposes violence upon the
texts themselves. The deeper the probing, the greater the suspicion that the ensuing
categories collapse or overlap towards the point of futility, gross over-simpli?cation and
absolute misrepresentation. Indeed the entire axiomatic process of selecting texts (whilst
ignoring many more), then seeking to strip down complex articles to base concepts, is surely
a case of asking for trouble (see Brown’s (1996a) analysis of the Hunt versus Anderson
internecine warfare for an example). However, if arts marketing is viewable a sub-?eld or
category of research in its own right, locating the base concepts that prop arts marketing up
is necessary. Hence, this article asks readers to view the violent categorizing as a
worthwhile, if somewhat painful, step towards formalizing arts marketing. The aim is to begin
a conversation rather than to dogmatically assert the ?nal word.
In this spirit, this paper presents and discusses four axiomatic categories. A perceived base
concept underpins each category: the consumption of art, the marketer as cultural reader,
the marketer as artist and marketing interpreting art.
3. The consumption of art
This ?rst category is perhaps the most obvious of all; the consumption of art is framed as
another instance of consumption. An in?uential and wide scale strand within alternative arts
marketing explores the deployment of culture as affective strategic resource. Following
Kotler’s (1974) observations regarding the development of retail atmospherics, Bruner
(1990, p. 94) surmise best the positivist spirit of inquiry; culture’s utility is akin to a ‘‘key on a
lock, activating brain processes with corresponding emotional reactions.’’ In this Clockwork
Orange-esque approach, arts marketers deploy culture to frame consumer experiences.
Early examples of such scholarship include Milliman’s (1982) studies that explore how
changing the tempo of background music in?uences the amount of money that supermarket
shoppers spend. The isolation of notional variables such as tempo continues in follow-up
studies that isolate familiarity (Yalch and Spangenberg, 1990) modality (Herrington and
Capella, 1996) in the case of music or color for visual art (Bottomley and Doyle, 2006).
However, as Oakes (2000) comments, art is consumable as a whole hence the breaking
down of art into discreet variables makes little sense and this critique helps to understand
the instances of direct contradiction within the studies (for example the con?icting ?ndings in
studies by Herrington and Capella, 1996 and Kellaris and Cox, 1989). DeNora (2003)
additionally notes that deploying culture, and music in particular, for manipulation resonates
with Adorno and Horkheimer’s (1998) culture industry thesis in which art is part of a reifying
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social order, not to mention Orwell and Huxley’s dystopian visions. The movement of enquiry
away from direct managerial application (as Holbrook (1992) describes) facilitates less
instrumentalist analyses of cultural consumption. Early examples of such scholarship
include Andreasen and Belk’s (1980) study of the predictors of attendance at the performing
arts whilst Holbrook and Schindler (1989) explore the impact of age upon musical interest
reporting, incidentally, that musical interest peaks at the age of 23.47! Recurrence in Belk’s
(1991) seminal consumer odyssey exempli?es the importance of culture in understanding
consumption. Whilst not engaging in the pursuit of measuring goat udder dimensions (see
Bradshaw and Brown, 2008), the consumer odysseyians visited various cultural locations,
such as a comedy showat a renaissance fair (featuring a mud pool) and a country n’ western
concert. This allows re?ection upon such topics as distinctions between high and lowculture
(Dugree et al., 1991) and O’Guinn’s (1991) disturbing exploration of fan culture in the Central
Midwest Barry Manilow Fan Club. Subsequent examples include Holt and Thompson’s
(2004) description of how iconic musicians such as Willie Nelson embody heroic forms of
masculinity. Maclaran (2003) argues the case for nostalgia in her commentary on a forgotten
piano in a shopping mall. Borgerson and Schroeder (2006) discuss the materiality of old
books where scribbles and dog-ears imbue meaning and sacred properties. Joy and Sherry
(2003) consider the museum experience with reference to embodied imagination and
Kozinets’ (2001) ethnography of Star Trek fans explores how cultural consumption can
create communities around shared utopian visions and mythologies.
An important analysis of such studies relating to the consumption of art emerges from
Venkatesh and Meamber (2008) who consider how the role of aesthetics in everyday
consumption ultimately aesthetizes and produces consumers as aesthetic subjects. This
insight problematizes distinctions between production and consumption, which remains an
overriding and de?ning aspect of marketing scholarship (Firat and Dholakia, 1998). Hence,
critical understandings of negotiated nexuses of both production and consumption emerge
as timely aspects of consumer culture and studies of art can take a central position in
advancing our understandings.
As Attali (1985, p. 9) argues art simultaneously exhibits three dimensions of human works:
‘‘joy for the creator, use-value for the consumer and exchange-value for the seller’’; and as
the artist may be creator, consumer and seller at once, art can be thought as a social model
in which consumption and production co-exist and are mutually constitutive. In particular the
commodi?cation of art in accordance with a production-consumption nexus emerges as
problematic; Mauss (1997) notes the societal discomfort as artistic work becomes the
copyright of a speci?c person rather than the community from which such art originates. In
sympathy with this perspective, Firat (1999, p. 289) argues:
Art, deemed to be in a different sphere than the rational and scienti?c production sphere,
presents good evidence for this system of enthusiasm for production. In modern capitalist
society, even art must become materialized and commercialized. What is now usually known as
art is not integrated into everyday living as part of life experience, but extracted, divorced or
separated from everyday life to be transformed into objects that acquire permanence to allow
economic exchange and speculation toward monetary amassment.
Hence considering the intersection of arts and marketing and culture economies emerges
as the site ‘‘par excel lance’’ for considering matters of political economy (du Gay and Pryke,
2002).
A series of empirical studies examine art as problematizing conventional production-
consumption nexuses, such as Bradshaw et al. (2005) review into how musicians playing
background music often become consumers of their own music in the face of a non-listening
‘‘audience’’. Venkatesh and Meamber (2006) explore arts as transcending the nexus due to
the postmodern phenomenon of cultural production containing the interaction and
collaboration of cultural producers, intermediaries and consumers. With the arrival of new
digital technologies, issues of collapsing nexuses are recurrent in Kozinets’ (2007)
exploration of the growing production quality and popularity of online Star Trek pirate
episodes; Schroeder’s (2007) study of the rise of snapshot aesthetics that blur the line
between popular photography and marketing strategy in an age of consumer-generated
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ads on websites like YouTube; and Giesler’s (2008) illustration of how resistance to culture as
commodity lead to Napster-lead subversion and consequent market recon?guration. In this
context, the study of arts yields powerful insights into broader issues of consumption,
markets and culture.
The examples demonstrate the distinction between arts marketing research that takes an
instrumental approach versus that which explores the consumption of art as a practice in its
own right. An increasingly dynamic and eclectic theorization de?nes the second category.
This theorization not only problematizes polarities between arts and marketing but also
throws consumption and production into the bargain. In this latter context, it becomes
possible to imagine how the location of the consumption experience at the heart of
aesthetics can provide a meaningful contribution to a wider understanding of arts and life
within consumer societies. Naturally, scholars must take care not to overstate the extent to
which marketing and consumer research owns such areas of analyses. Marketers share an
interest in culture as affect with disciplines such as social psychology, and in the less
instrumentalist approach with other disciplines such as anthropology, cultural geography
and sociology of art.
As consumer research concerns the entire spectrum of consumption it is not clear that the
studies in this review constitute a distinct ?eld. In other words, art and culture become,
perhaps, just another site of consumption to be explored using the same lens. A deeper
concern attends the ethics of those studies that seek to deploy artistic expression for
controlling affect: for example using background music in a retail environment to seek to
manipulate consumer behavior (such as Milliman, 1982). As DeNora (2003) comments from
a sociological perspective, the generally neo-positivistic scholarship primarily concerned
with developing culture as affective resource in this way are effectively in the business of
social control. By contrast, once interpretive studies lead to an abandoning of instrumentalist
agendas, an ersatz of conceptualizing becomes possible as issues of blurred
consumption-production nexuses come to the fore.
4. Marketing as art
Holt’s (2003, p. 43) comment, ‘‘Managers must get close to culture and that means looking
far beyond consumers as they are known today’’, follows a tradition of framing marketing
practice as culturally embedded. As O’Donohue (1997) notes advertising has become a rich
intertextual blend of cultural references. However, rather than suggest that marketers are
panoptic cultural readers and intermediaries, the author suggests that there are grounds for
regarding marketing practice as inherently creative and embedded in culture.
Scholars can think of marketing as participating beyond a rich dialogue with culture and the
art world. As Franks (1997) explores in his history of advertising, fromthe 1960s onwards the
industry moves away fromscienti?c application towards a more creative imperative. Distinct
from a simple model of advertisers greedily appropriating cultural expression and co-opting
art, Franks considers advertisers as inherently creative and exploring the potentials of the
advertising medium. In that context, if advertising does tend towards intertextual bricolage,
advertising mirrors, if not inspires, the practices in other cultural ?elds such as pop art
(Baudrillard, 1998) or pop music (Strange, 2002). This outcome is unsurprising as historians
trace the legitimization of advertising as a realistic career option for the artistically inclined
following the re-characterization of ?ne arts schools as design schools (Frith and Horne,
1987).
As Scott and Bradshaw (2007) argue, when the intentions of advertisers underpin analyses
of advertising content, it is clear that the advertisers understand themselves to be active
within ?elds of creative practice and, like artists, push against the boundaries of possibilities.
Hence, breakthroughs in advertising originate from creative pioneers like David Ogilvy, Bill
Bernbach, or Chiat Day. Creative intent, whilst invisible to the general public, remains a
de?ning aspect of the industry itself as revealed by studies into advertising agencies
(Hackley, 2000; Kelly et al., 2005) as well as historical reviews (Holt, 2004; Scott, 2005;
Franks, 1997). Meanwhile, as Guillet de Monthoux re?ects in interview with Venkatesh, the
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pursuit of beauty penetrates a considerable amount of marketing activity, right down to the
de?nition of market standards such as the ISO, whilst the artist and Bauhaus proponent,
Kandinsky himself, proposed the concept of market standards (Venkatesh, 2001). The same
insight applies to marketing scholarship with Brown’s (2005a) ironic literary analyses
revealing how the leading protagonists of the marketing-as-science debate nonetheless
develop highly stylized writing techniques. As Thompson (2008, p. 217) wryly comments,
‘‘Does my point seem opaque and veiled in unnecessary rhetoric circumlocutions? Perfect.’’
Brown (2001), in his history of marketing practice, argues that rather than being a scienti?c
endeavor (itself a rhetorical trick to gain credibility during the Cold War, see Tadajewski,
2006), marketing emerged from the carnivalesque aesthetics of such larger-than-life
characters as PT Barnum – the promoter of Tom Thumb and Jumbo the Elephant. Therefore
the roots of marketing practice are in the entertainment industry and from a time when
snake-oil sellers traveled town-to-town with a cast of jugglers and musicians who performed
the sales pitch as a spectacular show. Brown argues that this spirit of carnival pervades
contemporary marketing; which if we follow advertising messages, continues its ‘‘Greatest
Show on Earth’’, ‘‘once-in-a-lifetime’’, ‘‘lean mean grilling machine’’ self-presentation.
Beyond Barnum and snake-oil, during the late 19th century the link between sales and
aesthetics was well established with Walter Benjamin’s (2002) analysis of Parisian retailing
providing a wonderful case in point. In her history of advertising, Odih (2007) notes the
aesthetics of medieval European adverts and Holbrook and Hirschman (1993, p. 2) go as far
back as possible and claim, ‘‘the use of signs in art – and therefore, the intimate relationship
between the study of signs and consumer aesthetics – extends back as far as the history of
humanity itself’’. Hence, historically informed research generally concludes that the market
is an inherently aesthetic site. Meanwhile, those who direct their gaze towards the future also
see an aesthetically driven market with Schroeder (2002) arguing that the twenty-?rst
century will bring the realization of the aesthetic economy.
As Brown (2001) and Tadajewski (2006) explore, the drive of gaining the kudos of science
have included a will towards de-emphasising and jettisoning marketing’s creative roots
despite the fact that studies into marketing practice (such as Kelly et al., 2005; Hackley,
2000; Holt, 2004) regularly emphasize the creativity found therein. The intention here is not to
reclaim marketing as an art world (following a Becker’s, 1982 framing of an art world) or to
declare that marketers were always artists, but to consider the scope of the historical
evidence which problematize polarities between art and marketing. Rather than see
marketers as outsiders looking in, the author frames marketing practice as a ?eld that can be
inherently and fundamentally creative.
Marketing scholarship often carries a very aesthetic dimension. Just as Dennis and
Macaulay (2007) point to jazz improvisation as the role model for marketing
decision-making, Holbrook (1992) argues that jazz improvisation with its negotiation of
thesis and antithesis is the model for developing marketing theory. According to Holbrook
(1992), the consumer research experiential turn necessitates re-consideration of the form of
representation of emotions and requires a lyrical form of writing. Similarly, by the mid-1990s
the concurrent postmodern turn yields a crisis of representation (see Stern, 1998). In that
spirit and in?amed ?n-de sie` cle anxiety, Brown (1996a) predicted that the ?eld was about to
enter its third phase in which marketing achieves realization as art. Since then consumer
research and marketing literature appears as dance (Brown, 2002), poetry (Guillet
de-Monthoux, 2006), ?lm (Belk and Kozinets, 2005), a gripping murder mystery thriller
(Brown, 2006a), radiography (Bradshaw et al, 2005), theatre (McDonagh and Prothero,
1996) all the way to a doctoral thesis written in the formof a discussion between a lobster and
the sea (Canniford, 2006). Meanwhile the spirit of data-collection is now open to such
creative possibilities as introspection which emerges from a romantic literary tradition
(Holbrook, 1992) and a good old-fashioned road-trip (Belk, 1991).
5. Art as marketing
If marketing contains aspects of artistic endeavor, then the opposite holds that artistic
practice contains elements of marketing. Historical accounts of great artistic epochs
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demonstrate the extent to which artists exist, and sometimes thrive, within commercial
infrastructures (e.g., see Schroeder and Borgerson’s, 2002 review of the commerciality of
the Renaissance, Elias’s, 1993 accounts of Mozart’s commercial activity). Just as embracing
a scienti?c discourse leads marketers to abandon an aesthetic dimension, the adoption of a
bohemian ideology that insists artists must live a life of anti-nomianism leads artists to
discursively abandon commerciality (Griff, 1960; Becker, 1991).
Yet this abandonment of commerciality is contradictory (see Steinert, 2003 for a historical
discussion into this fundamental contradiction of art) as even bohemian artists sooner or
later have to eat. Instead, artists typically enact a complex balancing act of retaining artistic
integrity but also carving out a living (Bradshaw et al., 2006). Whilst often seeking to
de-emphasize or distract attention away from commerciality, artists can become very
wealthy nonetheless, for example see the enormous prices that contemporary artists such
as Damien Hirst command (Thompson, 2008). Ironically artists can ?nd a market by railing
against marketing, or as Heath and Potter (2005) argue, anti-commercialism sells. This
contradictory state is at the heart of Holt’s (2002) dialectical analysis of branding; Holt
contends that anti-corporate messages are often popular within postmodern consumption
as they address consumer suspicion and alienation. In this sense, the dialectical condition of
brands seems to mirror the dialectical condition of artistry.
Instead of simply learning from how artists negotiate contradictory demands, artists can at
times produce enough money to imply that they are the real business maestros after all. As
Brown (2005b, p. 8) notes, while the billions generated by the Harry Potter franchise may
seemlike peanuts in comparison to the super-brands, the fortune is nonetheless ‘‘better than
a poke in the eye with a sharp broomstick’’. The entertainment industry, with an emphasis
upon subjectivity, creativity, and instinct is where Brown suggests marketers ought to take
their cues from. Schroeder (2005b) details how artists too develop a recognizable look,
name and style – or as he puts it – a brand. (Schroeder, 2000). Even the great masters are
adept as business practitioners at deploying strategic devices such as scandal In this spirit
a series of case studies explore the marketing supremacy of artists such as Cindy Sherman,
Andy Warhol, and Barbara Kruger (Schroeder, 2005a), Frank Lloyd Wright, Vincent Van
Gogh, Salavador Dali (Fillis, 2000), James Joyce (Patterson and Brown, 2000), Tracy Emin,
Damien Hirst (O’Reilly, 2005) and J.K. Rowling and Dan Brown (Brown, 2006b). Such artists
can be labeled as culturepreneurs, in that they have ‘‘adopted strategies of intensive media
management in order to promote themselves as cultural or art brands, and thereby their own
commercial success’’ (O’Reilly, 2005, p. 583) or as authorepreneurs in that they have an,
exceptionally strong sense of what the market wants (Brown, 2006b). However, Schroeder
and Salzer-Morling (2006) warns against over-extending towards the market, citing Kinkade
as a glorious case of aesthetics awry. Outside of marketing, the idea that business can gain
from artists has strong currency within organizational studies with texts by Linstead and
Ho¨ p? (2000) and Guillet de Monthoux (2004) providing excellent examples.
6. Marketing interpreting art
The opening of the subject ?eld to creative and aesthetically driven perspectives brings the
opportunity to turn to the study of arts itself. Whilst Belk (1986) argues that artistic offerings
can be used to gain fresh insights into consumption, Holbrook and Grayson (1986) lay down
the real esprit de corps in their seminal interpretation of the ?lm Out of Africa. Embracing the
spirit of JFK, Holbrook and Grayson (1986) contend that scholars should ask not what
semiotics can do for consumer research, but what consumer research can do for aesthetics
and interpret how symbolic consumption is used in Out of Africa to convey artistic meaning.
Holbrook and Hirschman, 1993 (extend this method to other texts, including the TV series
Dallas and the movie, Gremlins). Holbrook (2004, 2005a, b, 2008) returns to the JFK-esque
mission and pioneers the method of ambi-diegetic and music analysis in order to explore the
use of soundtrack in plot development. Brown (1997) contributes to such discourse by
offering reviews of pulp ?ction and interprets Harry Potter as a celebration of marketing
activity (Brown, 2005a,b). Schroeder and Borgerson (2002) review the commerciality of
Renaissance art whilst Schroeder (2002) argues that people nowconsume aesthetic objects
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as part of an ‘‘image economy’’ which leads to an understanding of art within a much
broader consumption-scape.
The idea that consumer researchers can contribute to the analysis of artistic texts results in
the idea that scholars should review marketing texts using cultural lens and the implicit
assumption that the marketing text is a cultural object. Schroeder (2002) argues the case for
consumer researchers to be equipped with knowledge of art history and thus armed,
provides an analysis of a Calvin Klein advert with reference to Dutch group portraiture and
contemporary androgyny discourse. Elsewhere literary criticism yields in?uential
perspectives from Stern (1989) who argued that scholars can view advertisements as
meaningful cultural artefacts. Hence, literary critical analyses of Ivory Flakes adverts reveal a
complex portrait of the American woman as a consumer of products, advertising and
culture. Stern include gendered readings of advertising texts as part of a feminist
postmodern approach (Stern, 1993), a discussion of the dramatic structure of adverts in
order to affect persuasion through the elicitation of empathy and sympathy (Stern, 1994),
and a discussion of the extensive use of myths within advertising texts (Stern, 1995).
Meanwhile, Scott (1990, 1994a, b) deepens the conversation between consumer research
and literary theory by revealing the role of musical and visual rhetoric in advertising and also
by adapting reader-response theory to consumer research. By successfully conducting
literary theory and art history analyses of adverts, Stern, Scott and Schroeder alliteratively
demonstrate the extent to which people encounter marketing texts in a way directly
comparable to how they encounter artistic artefacts, once again revealing the cultural form
of marketing. Not only should subjects like art history and literary theory come to the fore as
scholars seek to interpret, understand and locate brand references to culture, but scholars
should think of the condition of branding as fundamentally linked to the aesthetic condition of
contemporary living in a brand culture (see Schroeder and Salzer-Morling, 2006; Venkatesh
and Meamber, 2006, 2008).
7. Conclusions and discussions
This paper provides an axiomatic analysis of four categories of arts marketing. The process
reveals a series of underpinning concepts including art as affective resource for strategic
deployment by marketers, consuming art as a process that transgresses standard market
organization, the possibility that marketing is organically aesthetic and vice versa; and, by
implication, that scholars can use arts methods to regard marketing texts. All overlap in their
ultimate implication – that polar divisions between art and marketing are conceptually
problematic. Yet despite the aesthetic condition, unease prevails with such dialectical
terms as ‘‘arts marketing’’, ‘‘culture industry’’, ‘‘culture economy’’, ‘‘culturepreneur’’, ‘‘brand
culture’’, and ‘‘aesthetic economy’’ as members of the artistic community retain a sense of
alienation from commercial logic (Kubacki and Croft, 2004; Bradshaw et al., 2006). For
example, the Burning Man founder, Larry Harvey, reacted angrily to Kozinets’ analysis of the
branding of the event (seehttp://kozinets.net/archives/category/burning-man), reminding all
that talk of a ?uid inter?ow between aesthetics and business may be premature.
Clearly the binary separation is misleading and representative of ideological and historical
processes. What does this polarity achieve? According to Brown (1996b, p. 260) marketers
striving for the gravitas of science do not produce better scholarship or the respect of the
scienti?c academy, but have ‘‘rendered us philosophically blind, intellectually deaf and
spiritually debilitated’’. Meanwhile for the art world it is said that the inability to respond to the
market can destroy artistic movements (Kotler and Scheff, 1997), leaves artists broke
(Abbing, 2002), and, at worst leads to heroin-fuelled self-destruction (Bradshaw and
Holbrook, 2007). Whilst Adorno (Adorno, 2002b, p. 109) argues that for culture to remove
itself from business is to remove itself ‘‘from the naked necessity of life’’, at the opposite
extreme for art to surrender itself to the totalizing logic of commodi?cation is surely to submit
to a destiny of one-dimensionality (Marcuse, 2002). Rather than see these poles – art as
pure, commerce as alienating – as diametrical opposites, the dialectical tension between
the poles may lead to the creative tensions and contradictions that drive artists forward
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along tight-rope balancing acts and can be inherently creatively productive itself (Bradshaw
et al., 2006).
This distinction between arts and marketing historically emerges with both sides actively
framing themselves by jettisoning aspects of the other. As studies by Desmond et al. (2000),
Kearney (2002) and du Gay and Pryke (2002) re?ect this creation of identity as antithesis can
stunt identities. Hence studies exploring the potential of the artistic creative spark to inform
organizational practice implicitly assume that this spark is necessarily absent; that the
business world includes soulless men in grey-?annel-suits and that artists are somehow
genetically modi?ed creatures inherently incapable of commercial venture. Equally, studies
seeking marketing solutions for cultural institutions are in danger of reproducing these
axiomatic assumptions. By contrast, in this literature review studies that interrogate
axiomatic distinctions between art and marketing generate a ?ow of re-discovery and
mutually energizing implications. Probing the axiomatic foundations of arts marketing
reveals issues extending far beyond the improvement of cultural institutions’ market
performance; these foundations exist at a much more essential level.
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Corresponding author
Alan Bradshaw can be contacted at: [email protected]
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