An Essay on Education
Retooling of Education System in India
Definition:
Education is any act or experience that has formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual/recipient. In technical sense, Education is the process by which society deliberately transfers its accumulated knowledge, skills & values from one generation to another. Etymologically, the word Education is derived from Latin word “Educere”, which means “to bring out or bring forth what is within”, in other words “to bring out potential”; and Latin word “ducere”, which means “to lead”. Thus Education is about grooming up the mind, character & physical ability of an individual and instilling him/her with knowledge, skills & values to bring forth his/her potential to lead. The process of education is delivered through effective utilization of Verbal, Written & Kinaesthetic skills (now-a-days, technology is also playing an increasingly important role) of the trainer to make effective impact of the senses of the trainee, as a result of which the abilities of individual is enhanced.
Education can be acquired through Formal, Informal or Experiential method. Formal Education is one, which acquired with an accomplished trainer, who guides/leads the process of learning of the recipient. This is normally done by placing suitably organized information & evidence for the recipient, by debating & challenging any apprehensions or doubts, and through suitable demonstrations & controlled experiments. Certificates, Diploma & Degrees are conferred on the individual in the formal education system & are distinguishing feature of this system. Informal Education is acquired through contemplation, observation, curiosity & logical reasoning, experimentation, Real life experiences & Self study. Experiential education is acquired as apprenticeship in a profession or trade under a supervisor, in experience sharing sessions (formal or informal) at work place or trade/industry seminars, by going through manuals, communication & directives that are part & parcel of any work place or industry.
Education is categorized as Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Education. Primary education is the one that is given up to 10-11 years of age under the formal education. Basic Language & Mathematics skills, elementary understanding of Natural Science & an impression of consciousness about the society around the child through knowledge of Social Science is imparted to the child during the Primary Education process. A child’s logical thinking ability, communication skills, Value system, manners & curtsies, Arithmetic skills and ability to discern or critical thinking ability are sought to be nurtured as a result of the process of Primary Education.
Secondary Education process leads to further development of the subjects taught in the primary education further is imparted till 17-18 years of age. Like the Language skills are nurtured to develop more sophisticated skills in Grammar & Comprehension along with verbal & written communication skills. The Mathematics skills include not only arithmetic but geometry, trigonometry, calculus, logarithms, concepts of accounting as well as some other relatively more sophisticated concept. Science is taught to develop critical thinking ability through systematic examination of natural phenomenon along with technological advancements of the society with knowledge of structure & composition of different states of matter, botany, zoology, physics and computer science among others. Social Science education dwells in geography, political science & awareness of Law, anthropology, economics with appreciation of various religion & belief systems, cultures & social phenomenon like casteism, racism etc. including history. The idea is to instil confidence in a child through realization of his inherent abilities, equip him to nurture his abilities and aptitude further, help him understand social, cultural, regulatory, political & legal systems of the society with social skills like organizing in teams or groups, leading such groups, dexterity, sportsman/competitive spirit & discipline, hygiene and sensitivity towards & appreciation of others.
Tertiary education seeks to nurture & improve financial productivity of an individual. Ideally no age limit should be prescribed for such education as its demand is a by-product of self-actualization endeavour of an individual. It prepares him to recognize his/her ‘needs & wants’ and acquire skills to further his abilities & aptitude to meet those needs by negotiating his space in society. Advanced knowledge of Engineering, Medicine, Science & Technology, Social Sciences including Arts, Economics, and History etc., Language & Communications skills or specialized knowledge of any subject helps him achieve his space. Also included are Vocational skills, Craftsmanship, Entrepreneurship, skills in Accounts & Trade & commerce, Technician skills in various trades & industry and ability to render services needed by the society are all part of Tertiary Education. Knowledge & Traits that are sought to be nurtured are analytical ability, innovation & experimentation spirit, skills to research, negotiation & management skills, with ability to understand behaviour of organizations & systems in the relevant trade; various support systems, local & global regulations guiding the development of the trade/industry; knowledge of various players & competitive postures in the trade/industry; demands of the society & ethical issues associate with the trade/industry; technological developments & challenges in the industry etc. The idea of Tertiary Education is to convert a human being into a professional (ranging from skilled worker to scientist/researcher).
In summary, aim of education is to develop new frontiers of the subject or to extend the boundaries of the subject further to support human pursuits in that direction. It arms an individual to the well being of self as well as that of the society. Improvement of Financial productivity, moral, ethical & spiritual values & systems and bankable skills are some of the results of education. Apart, the rulers/governments also try to push in development of nationalistic spirit, respect for their leaders, ideals & philosophy, respect & understanding for “National History (or Nationalistic view of History)”, “Laws, Political & Governing Architecture”, “National Policies, Values and Symbols” among other items to further “National interest or governance agenda”. Education needs to sustain the Interest of the recipient, help equip him to develop his Aptitude & Skills, give guidance about how Approach the subject & pursue Self Interest & Goals for further advancement, challenge his mental & physical faculties to further Research the subject to deduce new knowledge or understanding and bring forth creative solutions to solve needs of the society.
Meaning/Definitions of word marked in Bold:
1) Interest: Getting engaged to or with; Get excited or passionate about a person, object, or phenomenon.
2) Aptitude: A natural or acquired disposition or capacity for a particular purpose; A tendency to a particular action or effect.
3) Skill: Knowledge of Principles & Techniques with sufficient ability to judge suitability of a particular technique in a giver situation or circumstance with power to adapt.
4) Approach: Ability to identify & access an opportunity; To draw or push self to a desired situation from any given point. Approach pre-supposes knowledge & understanding of the given situation, regulatory & competitive environment, knowledge of support systems, ethical dilemmas & behaviour of various interest groups as well as prevalent incentive systems and motivation amongst various players etc.
5) Research: Systematic investigation to establish facts; A detailed study of the subject especially in order to discover new information or to reach a new understanding; Gathering & analyzing a body of information or data and extracting new meaning from it or developing a unique solution to problem or cases.
Scope:
India’s labour force has reached 425 million in 2010 and will continue to expand over the next two decades. Some projections suggest that the labour force increase will amount to 7.0-8.5 million a year. Though going by the population growth numbers of 20 years previous, we shall arrive at some 15 million new labour forces joining the labour market.
India has started to clock 8-9 % GDP growth (2004-08), however growth of employment has been only around 1-2 per cent. Many large enterprises have been shedding labour while the capacity of agriculture to absorb workers is minimal. It is only in boom years of 2007 & 08 only, that we probably added enough jobs for all new people joining the labour market. However, much of these jobs were in unorganized sector. Then we also have around 65-85 million persons without jobs. In addition, a significant number of people are underemployed. The unemployment rates among youth are higher, reaching in certain states, as much as 35 per cent against the national average of 13 per cent. There is an urgent need to generate around 15-25 million of new jobs each year i.e. just to stop the problem from attaining crisis levels & lead to social explosion.
Thus it is important for Policy makers, to not only liberalize new business/ industry sectors, so that they start throwing up new employment opportunities, but they also need to ensure that our youths have the requisite skills to sustain themselves productively in the cut-throat business environment. Thus there is an urgent need to relook at the Education & Skills development system in India to ensure that our children receive proper Training to be able to negotiate with the demands of the changing time.
India has about 550 million people under the age of 25 years. The Gross Enrollment Ratio is 96% at the primary level; however Dropout rate is approx. 32% at Primary level while it is 63% at the Secondary level. Only 11% of the population is receives any kind of Tertiary Education (in a Government recognized institutions) compared to the world average of 23%. India spends approx. 3-4% of its GDP on Education which is a bit lower than some of the developed & developing countries where the expenditure is about 6-8%. Given the higher proportion of youths is India, the expenditure on Education & Training may be raised to a higher level; up to 8-10% so as to meet the training needs of the young population. It should also be noted that percentage of Private expenditure on Education is rising. It was about 15-25% in the decade of 70s, reached about 30-35% in the 90s & is currently almost neck-to-neck (45-50%) with the Public/Govt. expenditure. Looking at the rising trend, further rise in (disposable) income level of the population, precarious state of Public/Govt. finances and favourable disposition of the attitude of the population, it can be concluded that privately funded education can be one of the big growth area in the overall economy. The sheer numbers of people in need to improve their skills with large number of people getting added up every year, points to the potential opportunity in the sector. Development of this sector has potential to not only employ a large number of people within itself (since education is employment intensive) but it also has potential to raise productivity across almost all other sectors of the economy (though exact contribution cannot be easily measured) and improve the quality of life through improved services. Healthcare, Tourism, Financial Services, Construction & Real estate, Retail & Wholesale Trading, Agriculture & Food Supplies, Animal Husbandry, Forestry, Logistics, House Keeping & Décor, Craftsmanship etc. are among some of the industries where productivity can go up several times with availability of suitably trained manpower without drawing much from other factors of production. And off course, almost all other industries can also do with well trained or better trained manpower as well.
So far, Education sector has been a classic case of neglect. It is a sector which has been a mess due to over regulation & resultant undersupply or sub-standard supply. Though, to be fair, Education sector has also seen some innovative corporate action with reasonable success. To begin the story here, it may be pointed that the Indian state makes it incumbent upon its government to offer basic education to all its children below fourteen years of age. Responsibility of education is shared jointly between the state & central government. Lack of resources has been the explanation for the limited capacity of the government to deliver. The government created various types of institutions to deliver education & results have been a mixed bag; with some excellent institutions with world class delivery (in terms of quality of students produced) while some where student’s time and Government’s resources are squandered with impunity. There also exists a robust private sector whose presence has largely been welcomed only by the richer sections of society. The poorer classes have not been able to afford the services of these private schools/institutions and therefore scoff at the sector. The government sector suffers from the apathy, neglect, corruption & unprofessional conduct of the large government bureaucracy and is in state of morass. Government has regulations pertaining constitution of organization for education in the private sector, regarding syllabi of what should be taught, regulates infrastructure requirements, has rights to inspect teaching, advises the kind of pay to be given to teaching staff and also conducts examination of students at certain level at Secondary Education level(X & XII). It’s a classic case where an agency that fails to discharge its responsibility decides to play regulator and ensures that everyone else are playing under the same circumstances that results in cumulative failure of all. Naturally, the private sector remains harassed with the overarching government intervention.
The education system in a state of moribund neglect till a few years ago, until the need for large number of trained people, by a single industry brought about a mindset change in the segment. Basically, it was India’s famed Information Technology industry which needed a vast army of trained code writers as well people who can run and work through the solutions offered by the industry. This required a large army of people which India’s state run higher education system was in no way equipped to provide. It didn’t have the resources or the willingness to invest in these resources either. It was then that some of the entrepreneurs rose up to the challenge. This led to start of “Vocational Training” institute in computers which facilitated people into jobs that they otherwise would not have been capable to deliver. The training models were not recognized by the Government (as a “Vocational Training Certification”) however, since the model was successful, it received wide spread support from the industry & students. These private institutions managed to avoid the ‘Red Tape’ of Indian bureaucracy by partnering industry & students while avoiding/ignoring Government mandated prescription for the vocational training sector. The ruling classes sensed the mood of the people and decided not to mess up with the emerging training institution till corrupt practices started gaining ground in the sector. During the middle of its Lifecycle, this model started offering more complex variety of education and also started receiving accolades from the industry for their training. As corruption & deceit started rearing their head, the government had to intervene, however not before liberalization of Higher education system via All India council of Technical Education route whereby the Private institutions certification got Government recognition & they were given a route to enter the system of Education in a regulated manner to impart Degree & Diplomas. The case/experience is shared to show the possibilities/opportunities & challenges in the Education & Training sector in India. Presently, though only open for the non-profit segment, Indian Education sector allows for non-government segment freedom to operate at all levels from Kindergarten to Schooling to Industrial training Centers, Polytechnics, Degree Colleges & Universities.
Despite phenomenal capabilities, India is seriously handicapped with a very weak and narrow Knowledge base. With 12.3% gross enrolment ratio in Tertiary Education, as compared to 21% in China, 54.6% in developed countries and the world average of 23.2%. There is need to convert the huge manpower into a potent & productive human resource by expanding opportunities for youngsters. We need to develop a massive scale in Education sector in diverse fields such as science, technology, engineering, architecture, management etc. to reap the demographic dividends. This is possible only if we seriously undertake rapid reforms in the higher and technical education sector. Given the size of the market and ability to become a Global low cost destination for education (with English as mode of Teaching); the sector offers significant opportunities to grow several times its current size in coming few years.
History
Education in Ancient India
India has a long history of organized education. The Gurukul system of education is one of the oldest on earth but before that the guru shishya system was extant, in which students were taught orally and the data would be passed from one generation to the next. Gurukuls were traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher's house or a monastery. The Vedas, Puranas, Ayurveda,Yoga, Kautilya's Arthasahtra are only some of the milestones that the traditional Indian knowledge system boasts of. Education under the system was free (and often limited to the higher castes), but students from well-to-do families paid Gurudakshina, a voluntary contribution after the completion of their studies. At the Gurukuls, the teacher imparted knowledge of Religion, Scriptures, Philosophy, Literature, Warfare, Statecraft, Mathematics, Medicine, Astrology and "History" ("Itihaas"). Only students belonging to Brahmin and Kshatriya communities were taught in these Gurukuls. However, the advent of Buddhism and Jainism brought fundamental changes in access to education with their democratic character. The first millennium and the few centuries preceding it saw the flourishing of higher education at Nalanda, Takshashila University, Ujjain, & Vikramshila Universities. Art, Architecture, Painting, Logic, mathematics, Grammar, Philosophy, Astronomy, Literature, Buddhism, Hinduism, Arthashastra (Economics & Politics), Law, and Medicine were among the subjects taught and each university specialized in a particular field of study. Takshila specialized in the study of medicine, while Ujjain laid emphasis on astronomy. Nalanda, being the biggest centre, handled all branches of knowledge, and housed up to 10,000 students at its peak. British records show that education was widespread in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The ancient system of learning didn’t follow any prescribed curriculum, thus allowed the students with freedom to pursue subjects of his interest & aptitude. Rigorous training under supervision of an expert Guru led to nurturing of skilled craftsman. The limitations imposed on social mobility due to rigid caste system, however draconian it may sound, but allowed for or even nurtured experimentation & research in the avocation, while at the same time helped in formulation of “approach” where the community imparted training is incentive system in the society/industry, in understanding of interest & motivation of various players, in managing overall risks. One probable outcome of the system was that the Ancient India was one of the foremost civilizations with its Craft in demand far & wide. Its Architecture, Legal, Political & Socio-cultural system was revered in other civilizations like Mesopotamia, Chinese & Egyptian Civilization.
But scholars have questioned & challenged the proponent of the above theory on following grounds. The village pathshalas were often housed in shabby dwellings and taught by ill-qualified teachers. Instruction was limited mainly to the three Rs(Rote, Religion, Rituals) and the native mahajani /zamindari accounts. Printed books were not used, and most writing was done on palm leaf, plantain leaf, or on sand. There was no fixed class routine, timetable, or school calendar. There was no annual examination, pupils being promoted whenever the guru was satisfied of the scholar's attainments. There were no desks, benches, blackboards, or fixed seating arrangements. The Ancient Education system has further been criticized as elitist system tailored to the needs of Brahmin boys who were taught to Read & Write by a Brahmin teacher. The entire social & educational system was designed to catapult Brahmins to the pinnacle of the system and ensure their dominance. Thus system was failed to deliver upon one of the main delivery requirements of Education system i.e. identifying natural aptitude of the student & honing them into marketable skills & matured intellect. An effective system should result in social mobility (since students are free to pursue their interests) which the ancient system failed to provide.
During the period of invasion, the systems were disrupted. Advent of new religions, such as Buddhism, Jainism etc. led to further alienation of the lower strata from the ancient Social & Educational system. The Brahmins lost their status & position at the pinnacle of the society as well as the incentives that accrued to them. The development of Mathematics, Science, Arthashastra, Literature etc. which were pursued by Brahmins suffered as a result and India ceded its status of the foremost nation in the comity of nations. By the time Mughals invaded & took over India, the Education system had declined fairly from its past glorious phase. Idian had no knowledge of the latest techniques in warfare like usage of Gun-Powder & usage of Guns (Topkhana). Over a long period there was no university system existing in the country or organised education system, for that matter. The University system regenerated only when the British restarted the system of Education which is prevalent today as modern Education system.
Even though India’s Ancient Education system “ Guru-Shishya Parampara” has declined but it can still be seen in action in certain sectors. It dominates segments like Spiritual Education, Yoga/Physical & Mental training & Relaxation, Traditional Song (Sangeet), Music (Instruments training) & Dance (Nritya) education, In the traditional Song, Music & Dance space, though India’s formal education sector has tried to make deep in-roads (we have University awarding degrees & even Doctorate research, however People have continued to prefer “Guru-Shishya model” where one teacher continues to work diligently over the student throughout his/her Education period & imparts him with skills, with information on how to approach the art to develop further & identify opportunities in the life. We also have the system of “Ustad” in various trades like Auto Mechanic, barber, Tailoring, Metal work etc. who recruit young pupils to train them for these ‘Life” skills. The poor in Rural as well as Urban areas prefer their children to be trained by these “Ustad” over the Formal Education system primarily because of ‘costs’ but also because they see little value in the formal system to be able to impart ‘Life’ or Earning skills. The elite in India scoff at the system as they see it as ‘Exploitation” of the child who is made to work on the ‘Shop floor’ during the process. The system though struggling with the ‘jeers’ that the Teachers and elite throw at it (inspite of the fact that formal education has no solution for the students of this segment), however ‘Ustad’ system has now also got to deal with ‘Free Mid-day Meal’ scheme of the Government of India for the Primary Education sector which is able to wean away the student due to the ‘incentive’ of Meal. However, it has survived and continues to “Skill” India with its offering (Ills of the system notwithstanding). Careful thought must go to about this segment before deciding about Reforms. We may want to develop a strategy to reform this piece of reform the informal education system to rid it of its ills, rather than reform the Education system to rid it from the “Guru-shishya or Ustad” system.
Education in British India
British records show that indigenous education was still widespread in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The schools were attended by students that represented all classes of society. Pre-British educational institutions were maintained by grants of revenue-free land by the state/ruling class. The East India Company, with its policy of maximizing land revenue, stopped this and thus starved the Indian education system of its financial resources which led to further De-generation of the Ancient Education system. When Royal British Government took governance of India from East India Company, it de-recognized the old system and stopped any incentives for them or for the students who turned out through the old system. So the decline which had probably started in the mid- 1700s & continued since then brought about almost total annihilation is early 1800s. By the 1820s neither the village schools nor the tols or madrasas were the vital centres of learning. Thus Ancient Education system had failed to survive this body blow. Gandhi is said to have described the traditional educational system as a beautiful tree that was destroyed during British rule.
The newer era of higher education started with the British initiative in the 19th century. Lord Macaulay (1835) through the Macaulay minutes stressed upon the closure of institutions of oriental learning (though the British didn’t shut down Indian institutions enmasse but they did nothing to prevent them from degeneration which ultimately led to their extinction) and then a few colleges at different places were established by the British regime. In July 1854, Woods Despatch had proposed establishment of universities in India. Accordingly, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras Universities were established in the year 1857 which are felicitating their 150th year. Some of the renowned Educational institutes like St. Xavier's College, Sydenham College, Wilson College and Elphinstone College have been established by the British in India. Quite a few well meaning Indian intellectuals had supported the British Education system which the regarded as more open & allowed for social mobility. Prominent among them was Raja Rammohan Roy, who wrote to the governor-general, Lord Amherst, requesting that he not spend government funds on starting a Sanskrit College in Calcutta but rather employ "European Gentlemen of talent and education to instruct the natives of India in Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Anatomy and other useful sciences.
Detractors of British Education system argue that it was "To consolidate their hold on India, the British set upon establishing an intermediary race of Indians, whom they could entrust with their work at the middle level echelons and who could one day be convenient instruments to rule by proxy, or semi-proxy. They see British Education as tool to shape these British clones. They demonize Macaulay as someone who had very little regard for Hindu culture and education: Mr. Macaulay is portrayed in poor light quoting epithets such as “Hindus have a literature of small intrinsic value, hardly reconcilable with morality and full of monstrous superstitions." credited to him.
Some reforms & development efforts were also witnessed in the Education sector in British India. In 1882 the first Indian Education Commission under the Chairmanship of W W Hunter was established. The report dealt with indigenous education, primary education, secondary education and university education. In 1913 the Education Policy was developed by the then British Government, which proposed establishment of new universities within each province. Accordingly, the Central Hindu College was converted to Banaras Hindu University in 1916 and Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College into Aligarh Muslim University in 1920. Universities were also stared at Mysore, Hyderabad and Patna. India’s first Medical College came up in Calicut in 1942-43. This was in response to shortage of Doctors during the second World War for the British Soldiers. The Sergent Report of 1944 was an effort to develop a national system of education in India, which suggested formation of University Grants Commission.
Although in theory, British Education system was liberal, allowed for equal opportunities to everyone armed with a Degree & skills in English language. However, in practice the way the applied the policy, the elitist tendencies were reinforced. Firstly, the Education system or Higher Education required a stay in Hostels as prominent colleges were available in few cities. Besides, there were a host of other expenses like Tutorials, Books etc. which the poor couldn’t afford. The British were also keen to preserve the position of the privileged to enlist their support for the British rule and thus did little to upset them. The elite then helped British fasten their grip on India.
Also, the system relied on imported books, text & tutors. These had no relevance to local situations in India and failed to provide any ready reference point to the students except in some fields like some topics of the Natural sciences, Mathematics etc. Secondly, the system put special emphasis of examination (especially written examination) as a tool to judge merit of the student. Third, the system offered little choice to students in terms of selection subjects of their aptitude. Lastly, the Score in the examination was almost the sole criterion for selection of a candidate for job (along with knowledge of English). Thus, it started the great Indian race to cram subjects to score well during examination. The interest & aptitude of the students stifled in the system. Also, the British Administrative system was still developing during that period. So little information was available to teachers to impart knowledge & share information about the opportunity structure or merits or demerits of the Policy & procedures. Thus students generally lacked information on how to approach the subject to pursue their goals or to enhance their skills further. There is little evidence of indigenous research facilities as British were keen to push their industrial wares in India & thus were more interested to stifle Indian innovation rather than promoting it.
Even with all its several flaws of the Education System prevalent today in India is that, it is an extension of the Old British Raj Education system with very little reform ushered into the same. Post Independence, we started taking decisions locally. However, our Administrators as well as most Strategic observers had little faith on our culturally diverse society to be able to stick together. So, they kept the decision making process mostly under wraps away from public gaze. Thus Education system could not benefit from observation of the decision making & its implementation process. Neither was debate on Governance, policy & procedures brought forth in public domain. While relatively more promotion was given to promote India’s indigenous Values system & highlight its Rich history & common heritage, little information was provided on how it interacts with global schemes of things, how policies and procedures are being evolved & discuss suitability of those decisions for our toiling masses. Students who pass out have little idea over the direction that they should adopt to reach their Goals, the behaviour, tendencies, requirements of organizations in their field of avocation; the policies & regulatory structures as well as global & competitive structures shaping the industry; challenges, incentives & motivation of various players in the industry etc. From the British period, students went abroad (generally to UK, which was the centre of the World, then) to acquire (higher) Education since that provided them with greater sense of liberation by helping them to see ready reference points & policy making in action. The glimpses of this Education bias can be seen in India’s Freedom struggle itself where those educated in Britain dominated the scene & commanded India post liberation, while those who educated in India are just small blips in the History of our Freedom struggle. The bias in favour of foreign education continues till date even as “Young India” cries for Sweeping reforms to overhaul of the Education system.
However, to be fair to British Education system, it did help inculcate the sense of Rule of Law, Equality before Law, Freedom of Speech, Freedom to pursue one’s religion & Belief system etc. among Indians. Engineers trained by the system helped build several Bridges, Dams, Roads, Railways & Maritime transportation. It helped create a single administrative unit for the whole of India, which constituted of several Princely states, and our ‘Babus’, which are product of the same Education system are still able to hold the country together in more or less the same way, British handed it over to them. The thriving Electoral Democracy, Free Press, Independent Judiciary, a Professional Army among several institutions acclaimed for their excellence are all managed by products of the same Education System. Guess, it shall be wiser to instead dwell of the future course for Education System in India; to focus on strategies to groom intellect for the future rather than debate the past.
Education in Modern India
Education in Independent India
During the post independence period, the First Education Commission was constituted in 1948 on university education. The Commission was chaired by Dr S Radhakrishnan and also known as the Radhakrishnan Commission. This Commission stressed on autonomous status of universities. The Commission pointed out ‘democracy depends for its very life on high standard of general, vocational and professional education’. The dissemination of learning, incessant search for new knowledge, unceasing effort to plumb the meaning of life provision for professional education to satisfy occupational needs of our society are the vital tasks of higher education”.
As an outcome of these recommendations, the University Grants Commission was established in 1956 (Recommendation for setting UGC was received in 1942 as well). In July 1964 Second Education Commission known as the Kothari Commission was appointed to establish well designed, balanced, integrated and adequate system of national education capable of making the powerful contribution to national life. The Commission emphasized on expansion of higher education, enhancing quality of higher education and research; and use of dynamic techniques for management and organization. In 1968, the National Policy on Education was adopted based on the recommendations of the Kothari Commission, which led to the considerable expansion of education facilities all over the country. In rural habitations, schooling facilities were recommended to be developed within a radius of one kilometre but these did not get translated into detailed structure of implementation.
Allocation of responsibility for various subjects to different tier of government is ultimately laid down in the Constitution. From 1950, when the Constitution came into force, till 1976, Education was essentially a State subject, with role of Central Government being limited to
· Running Central Universities , Central institutions of training and research, and institutions of national importance, and
· Coordination and determination of standards in institutions for higher, scientific and technical education and research.
The Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act, 1976, shifted Education, in general, from the “State List” to the “Concurrent List”, thus giving both Central and State Governments jurisdiction over it, concurrently. The concept of concurrency was fleshed out in para 3.13 (“A Meaningful Partnership”) of the National Policy on Education, 1986, which reads as follows:-
3.13 The Constitutional Amendment of 1976, which includes Education in the Concurrent List, was a far-reaching step whose implications--substantive, financial and administrative--require a new sharing of responsibility between the Union Government and the States in respect of this vital area of national life. While the role and responsibility of the States in regard to education will remain essentially unchanged, the Union Government would accept a larger responsibility to reinforce the national and integrative character of education, to maintain quality and standards (including those of the teaching profession at all levels), to study and monitor the educational requirements of the country as a whole in regard to manpower for development, to cater to the needs of research and advanced study, to look after the international aspects of education, culture and Human Resource Development and, in general, to promote excellence at all levels of the educational pyramid throughout the country. Concurrency signifies a partnership, which is at once meaningful and challenging; the National Policy will be oriented towards giving effect to it in letter and spirit.
By the 72nd and 73rd Amendments to the Constitution, bodies of local self-government – Panchayati Raj bodies for rural and Municipal bodies for urban areas, respectively – were accorded Constitutional status, in 1993. Assignment of functions to these bodies is to be determined by laws enacted by individual State legislatures. However, the Eleventh and Twelfth Schedules of the Constitution provide illustrative lists of items which may, by law, be devolved on these local bodies. The Eleventh Schedule lists Education up to the Secondary level, Vocational Education, and Adult and Non-Formal Education, among others, for devolution to Panchayati Raj bodies. Let’s discuss governing system for Education in India.
The Constitution
The Constitution of India is the ultimate document which guides State policy in all sectors, including Education. Details of provisions contained in the Constitution, which have a bearing on Education, have been listed on this website under the caption “Constitutional Provisions”. Their more important features are:
Provision of free and compulsory education to all children upto the age of fourteen years
Education, in general, is the concurrent responsibility of the Union and the States.