Description
With this paper about a decade of entrepreneurship education in south africa ernest north.
24
A decade of entrepreneurship education in South Africa
Ernest North
University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002 South Africa
[email protected]
To realise the ideal of a better life for all South Africans, the entrepreneurial energies of all our people (including children) should be
harnessed to ensure that the country's full potential for economic growth is unleashed. This article describes some initiatives taken by
roleplayers in both the private sector and the educational sector to engage in entrepreneurship education in South Africa over the past 10
years. Special emphasis is placed on a research project in Gauteng schools on the implementation of a pilot core syllabus for entre-
preneurship and economic education for pupils in the intermediate school phase. This programme entailed the training of teachers, and the
modification of the pilot syllabus. The perceptions of pupils who have recently been exposed to entrepreneurship education in Curriculum
2005 are also offered.
Introduction
The term entrepreneurship means different things to different people.
Peter Drucker, an authority on management theory, noted that al-
though the term has been used for more than 200 years, "... there has
been total confusion over the definition" (Lambing & Kuehl, 2000:
14). Van Aardt and Van Aardt (1997:4) refer to the Oxford English
Dictionary which defines an entrepreneur as one "... who organises,
manages, and assumes the risks of a business enterprise". Various
other authors agree, however, that there are some common aspects
which define the nature of entrepreneurship, namely risk taking, cre-
ativity, independence, and rewards (Hisrich & Peters, 1998; Kroon,
1998; Dollinger, 1995). According to Hisrich and Peters (1998:24),
these commonalities will continue to be the driving force behind the
notion of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship education in the
future.
The establishment, promotion and cultivation of a culture of
entrepreneurship among the youth is a topic that has received con-
siderable attention recently. Various centres, foundations and after-
school classes in entrepreneurship for children have been established
in countries such as the United States and Japan (Brown, 2000;
Suvendrini, 2001; Edmond, 1995). Kellner (2000:180-182) refers to
the National Foundation for Teaching Entrepreneurship (NFTE), a
nonprofit organisation that teaches inner-city children how to become
entrepreneurs. Thirty-six percent of 31 000 children who have gone
through the programme went on to start their own businesses, ranging
in annual revenues from $500 to $500 000. Publications such as Kid-
preneursNews (for children ages eight to twelve) and Black Enterprise
for Teens (ages thirteen to eighteen) are examples of publications in
the United States created to teach entrepreneurship skills to children
(Smith, 1999). As could be expected, initiatives to utilise modern tech-
nology to teach entrepreneurship competencies to children are already
under way. The Financial NetNews (1998:3) reports on the landing of
an interactive educational Website called Fleet Kids by Fleet Bank
which has been designed to teach children responsible financial plan-
ning and entrepreneurship.
Much has been said, written and done in South Africa over the
past 10 years to establish mechanisms whereby children can actively
become involved in entrepreneurial activities, and which could nurture
their entrepreneurial spirit. The main aim of the various formal and
informal programmes in entrepreneurship education is to teach child-
ren to become creative and constructive members of their commu-
nities, and to develop their entrepreneurial skills. In the words of
Moloi (1995:1), young entrepreneurs must become "... masters of their
own destinies".
Unfortunately, the state of the South African economy at present
is a cause for concern for the future adults of our country. They are
confronted with problems such as crime, corruption, mismanagement
and unemployment. The unemployment problem in South Africa is
causing anxiety not only to the government or roleplayers in the pri-
vate sector, but also to the younger generation. It is estimated that
more than 8 million people will be unemployed in South Africa by
2010 (Gouws, 1997:143). It is assumed that the effects of HIV/AIDS
have not been taken into account in this estimate. The world of work
has changed dramatically over the past few decades, and it can be ex-
pected to change even more rapidly in the new millennium. According
to Sunter (Van Schoor, 2000:41), the picture becomes even gloomier
because the South African schools "... are brilliant at educating child-
ren for the 1950s". This statement may be questioned, however, consi-
dering that valuable work is currently being done by teachers who are
committed to making a positive contribution to the education of our
youth.
For young people to escape from the vicious circle caused by
failings in the system, active intervention will be necessary. There is
therefore an urgent need for young people to be educated and trained
in the field of entrepreneurship. In order for them to become job-
creators rather than job-seekers, children should learn, from an early
age, to be knowledgeable consumers, develop the right attitude
towards work, and develop the skills needed to identify viable business
opportunities and eventually start their own business undertakings.
Entrepreneurship education will therefore contribute to the ideal of
empowering as many people as possible in order to unleash the
previously stifled human potential of all South Africans (Hanekom,
1995). Esterhuizen (1996) is of the opinion that this ideal will be
better accomplished when parents also become actively involved in
entrepreneurship education for their children at home.
The nature and scope, as well as the current implementation of
Curriculum 2005, have been subjected to much debate and scrutiny
(Rogan, 2000:118). It is, however, not the intention of this article to
engage in this debate. Rather, this article will focus on initiatives by
some roleplayers which have taken place over the past 10 years in both
the private sector and the educational sector as regards engagement in
entrepreneurship education in South Africa. The views and percep-
tions of children who have been exposed to the Curriculum 2005
entrepreneurship education programme will also be highlighted.
The plea for the advancement of entrepreneurship and also for the
establishment of mechanisms to include it in the formal school curri-
culum has come from various sources, including the formal educa-
tional sector, the private sector and non-governmental organisations
(NGOs).
Initiatives in the private sector
Apart from the unemployment problem, Maré and Crous (1995) and
Gouws (1997:143; 145) refer to other reasons why roleplayers in the
private sector should actively get involved in the promotion of entre-
preneurial activities among young people:
• the substantial "labour force imbalance", with an endemic and
worsening shortage of skilled labour
• the much lower percentage of South Africa's economically active
population that are presently self-employed compared with the
percentage in other countries
South African Journal of Education Copyright © 2002 EASA
Science Africa (Pretoria)
Vol 22(1) 24 – 27
South African Journal of Education Vol 22(1) 2002 25
• the high population growth rate in South Africa
• the high rate of illiteracy in the country
• the non-relevance of the education system and the fact that too
many black matriculants opt to take subjects such as History and
Biblical Studies.
Although the private sector and other concerned roleplayers might
confess that they have neglected this area in the past, various projects
have been launched and valuable contributions made by roleplayers
from the private sector over the past decade. Listed below are exam-
ples of a few roleplayers in the private sector who engaged in the ad-
vancement of entrepreneurship at school level prior to the official
introduction of entrepreneurship in the Curriculum 2005 programme.
It falls outside the scope of this article to discuss the valuable contri-
butions made by organisations that have developed outcomes-based
entrepreneurship programmes for the Economic and Management
Science (EMS) Learning Area.
Junior Achievement (JA)
JA Southern Africa is a nation-wide, autonomous, non-profit associa-
tion which offers experiential business skills programmes to young
people. It operates in consultation with the Centre for Developing Bu-
siness of the University of the Witwatersrand, other local universities
and 120 private sector and foreign investors. At the heart of JA's
operations are a range of experiental business education programmes
that bring business people and the youth together for their mutual
benefit. JA was brought to South Africa in the late 1970s and refined
to meet local needs and the particular nature of South African society
(Junior Achievement, 1994).
The Education with Enterprise Trust (EWET)
The process that led to the establishment of EWET and the initiation
of the Youth Enterprise Society (YES) began in 1989. A number of
young people and teachers expressed the need for the development of
skills appropriate to the "world of work" and more specifically for
skills directed towards the option of self-employment. The planning of
the YES pilot programme was finalised in 1993 and the programme
was initiated in 1994. YES is a national club movement that serves as
a laboratory for developing entrepreneurs among the South African
youth. Various business competencies are developed through a process
of learning-by-doing. Members participate by joining a team that
meets once a week. They compete against other teams on topics such
as how to start and run a business and how to earn money to help their
communities (EWET, 1995).
Entrepreneurship Education Initiative (EEI)
According to Blacklaws (1997), the EEI was formed under the auspi-
ces of Richards Bay Minerals. The aims of this initiative are to provide
a platform for increasing the number of business start-ups, and to
provide opportunities for schoolchildren to take part in competitions
that will contribute to their understanding of and engagement in entre-
preneurial activities. One of EEI's major achievements was gaining
recognition for the importance of entrepreneurship training from the
government, with particular emphasis on influencing the structure and
content of Curriculum 2005.
Other roleplayers and initiatives
Other roleplayers and initiatives that promote entrepreneurship
include: The ABSA Top Entrepreneur Competition 2001, which caters
for school children and university students, Cash for Schools (CFS)
which is a concept designed to assist South African schools with
fundraising ventures (CFS partners include Ackermans, Nestlé, Simba,
Liqui-Fruit and First National Bank), the Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut,
the Small Business Development Corporation, various chambers of
commerce, Expo for Young Scientists and tertiary institutions.
A study by Gouws (1997:144) found that almost 44% of the 60
respondents who are actively involved in promoting entrepreneurship
indicated that they are involved in entrepreneurship education at
schools. Two of the many prominent South African personalities who
also share the vision of entrepreneurship education for young people
are Clem Sunter, a scenario planner for Anglo American, and Law-
rence Mavundla, the President of ACHIB (African Council of Haw-
kers and Informal Business).
Entrepreneurship education in South Africa: a brief
historical overview
According to Maré and Crous (1995), many people blame the school
system for the lack of entrepreneurial exellence in South African.
Many school leavers who have not received tuition in subjects such as
Business Economics or Economics are sent into the working world
almost as "economic illiterates". It is believed that the objectives or
learning outcomes as described by the South African Qualifications
Authority (SAQA) will hopefully bring relief in this regard.
Education and curriculum experts have been involved since 1990
in various projects and programmes for introducing entrepreneurship
into the school curriculum. One of the first questions to be answered
was whether learners at primary schools were capable of understan-
ding matters related to economic activities, and if so, to what extent
(Davies, 1991). In an effort to answer these and many other questions,
the Superintendent-General of the former Department of Education
and Culture: House of Assembly, appointed a committee in 1991 to
investigate the feasibility of the inclusion of entrepreneurship as a
possible future school subject.
Concept core syllabus for Economic Education
Unfortunately, at the time when the abovementioned committee began
its operations, roleplayers from all the education departments were
unable, for a variety of reasons, to participate in the project. The sam-
ple therefore included Grade 1 to Grade 7 learners from six Model C
schools in the Pretoria region.
A thorough literature study and a situation analysis were carried
out prior to the execution of the project. This resulted firstly in the
realisation that there is indeed a need and place for entrepreneurship
to be included in the school curriculum. Secondly, it became clear that
entrepreneurship should not be offered as a subject on its own. Rather,
it should be approached in a holistic manner as part of "the big pic-
ture". This big picture focuses on the economic reality which learners
(even in Grade 1) are involved in daily. A working document, which
served as a draft core syllabus, was compiled. For practical reasons
this "new subject" was called Economic Education. The overall objec-
tives of the proposed new subject were described as follows:
"The knowledge and skills pupils obtain must be of such a nature
that they should realise and discover that they:
• are participants or roleplayers in the economy;
• should become skillful consumers;
• must manage their own money matters in a responsible way;
• should develop a positive attitude towards productive work;
and
• can become successful entrepreneurs who could engage in
entrepreneurial activities" (Department of Education and
Culture: House of Assembly, 1992:1).
The syllabus contains the following modules: basic economic concepts
and processes, consumer skills, productivity and entrepreneurship.
Learners in the senior primary phase (Grades 6 and 7) were also briefly
introduced to very basic accounting and aspects relating to business
law.
Pilot study
The research team, which comprised three curriculum researchers in
the field of economic sciences, embarked on a pilot study that was
conducted in primary schools in the Pretoria region. Approximately 20
teachers from the six schools were exposed to an in-service training
programme for 6 weeks in 1992. The pilot core syllabus was intro-
duced and tested in the six schools during 1993. When required,
guidance and further training for teachers was offered. After evaluation
South African Journal of Education Vol 22(1) 2002 26
of the syllabus by teachers at the end of 1993, certain amendments
were made. The process (guiding teachers and modifying the syllabus)
was repeated in 1994. The document was then finalised and submitted
to the Department of National Education as a working document for
use in the curriculum renewal process by the new government.
Entrepreneurship in the Curriculum 2005 programme
In many instances the development and implementation of a new
curriculum is a rather difficult and costly exercise, and it is often not
a very popular activity. Many problems or pitfalls may hamper the
successful implementation of the Curriculum 2005 programme. The
following serve as examples: Firstly, schools in South Africa differ
from one another in many respects, for example the professional
backgrounds and educational levels of teachers in rural, township and
urban areas are not the same (Rogan, 2000:118). And secondly, the
cultural background and differences of learners in the school system
(Gouws, 1997:146), as well as the conversion of the curriculum con-
tent from being Eurocentric to being Afrocentric (Jeevanantham, 1999:
49), present many challenges for both curriculum developers and the
schools that have to implement the curriculum.
Entrepreneurship as a critical outcome
The Curriculum 2005 programme of the Department of Education
identifies 12 critical outcomes. These critical outcomes are the broad,
generic cross-curricular outcomes which underpin the Constitution,
and which have been adopted by the South African Qualifications
Authority (SAQA). These outcomes will ensure that learners gain the
skills, knowledge and values that will allow them to contribute to their
own success as well as the success of their families, and the nation as
a whole. SAQA proposes an outcome with the specific intention of
enabling individuals to identify and engage in entrepreneurial oppor-
tunities (The National Qualifications Framework, 2000:23).
A study of all the relevant documents disclosed that entrepre-
neurship is listed as one of six phase organisers identified to facilitate
the planning, organisation and assessment of the curriculum develop-
ment process. This should ensure that children are given opportunities
to develop as active citizens capable of contributing to the building of
a democratic society (Policy Document of the Department of Edu-
cation, 1997:20). Teachers are therefor not specifically trained to be
entrepreneurial. Entrepreneurship as a field of study falls under the
Learning Area: Economic and Management Sciences (EMS). In the
foundation phase (Grades 1 to 3) the Life Skills programme makes
provision for entrepreneurship. The following four modules are pre-
scribed for the teaching of entrepreneurship in the foundation phase:
• Needs in society
• Characteristics of an entrepreneur
• Starting one's own business
• Productivity
Listed below are those Specific Outcomes, Assessment Criteria and
Range Statements for EMS in the Foundation Phase as contained in
the Policy Document of the Department of Education (EMS, 1997:
5-19) that were included in the original working document (syllabus)
for Economic Education (Department of Education and Culture:
House of Assembly, 1994:1-6) which was submitted to the Department
of National Education in 1994:
• SO1: Engage in entrepreneurial activities: Needs in society, cha-
racteristics of entrepreneurs, starting a business, business plan,
productivity
• SO2: Demonstrate personal role in economic environment:
Rights of the consumer
• SO3: Demonstrate the principles of supply and demand and the
practices of production: Factors of production, exchange of goods
and services
• SO4: Demonstrate managerial expertise and administration pro-
ficiency: Planning and organising
• SO6: Evaluate different economic systems: Types of ownership,
profit motive
Informal training of teachers
Personal interviews with headmasters and teachers of the six schools
who were involved in the pilot study in 1992, as well as discussions
with teachers involved in a recent study, confirmed that very few
teachers in the intermediate school phase have had formal training in
the economic sciences. Prior to the implementation of Curriculum
2005, pro-active initiatives entailed the training and in-service training
of teachers to prepare them for the implementation of the new entre-
preneurship programme in schools. More than 20 000 pupils, teachers
and parents have been exposed to the programme over the past 5 years.
Initially only schools in the Pretoria region were included in the pro-
gramme. Fortunately, the programme has recently been expanded to
make provision for schools in the Mpumalanga province where an
Honours graduate in Marketing was trained to take responsibility for
the running of courses in Middelburg. Plans are now under way to
start training programmes in the rural areas, the most recent pro-
gramme being (March 2000) run in an ex-model C school where 30
pupils from previously disadvantaged communities participated.
The content of the entrepreneurship programme makes provision
for the following modules:
• A broad overview of the nature and scope of entrepreneurship.
Basic business and economic concepts are explained and related
to the role of entrepreneurs in the production and delivery of
goods and services.
• Discovering one's potential as a future entrepreneur. Charac-
teristics of an entrepreneur and case studies of successful young
South African entrepreneurs are discussed.
• Identifying viable business opportunities. Learners are challenged
to identify needs in their local communities and propose solutions
as to how they can be involved in meeting those needs.
• Drawing up business and marketing plans. The learners are re-
quested to do "research" and draw up a simple business and mar-
keting plan for a future business undertaking they would like to
be involved in.
• Starting and managing one's own business. Learners are taught
the basics of business management.
• Develop the right attitude towards money.
Schools are also encouraged to include a "market" or "entrepreneur-
ship" day in the programme. On these occasions learners are given the
opportunity for hands-on-experience of entrepreneurship. They bring
their products to school and sell them to fellow students during breaks.
Prior to this specific day, learners are guided on the drawing up of a
business plan. Younger learners are encouraged to include the fol-
lowing in their business plans:
• What they want to sell (business idea)
• How the product will be made (production)
• How much it will cost (price)
• How they will inform other pupils about the product (advertising)
Pupils' perceptions of entrepreneurship education
Traditional curriculum theory states that scientific curriculum develop-
ment hinges on three basic determinants, namely, societal needs, the
content of the subject matter (subject integrity), and the needs and
wants of the learners. What do learners feel and think of the entrepre-
neurship education they have been exposed to since entrepreneurship
was introduced in the syllabus?
A questionnaire was distributed at 3 schools, to 150 pupils, in the
intermediate school phase (Grades 7 and 8) in September 2000. Care
was taken to ensure that the EMS in Curriculum 2005 has been imple-
mented in the schools that were selected. The non-probability sample
consisted of 80 boys and 70 girls. A 5-point Likert scale was used as
the research instrument to determine the pupils' perceptions regarding
entrepreneurship education. They were asked to indicate whether
entrepreneurship education (EE) should be included in the broad
curriculum, and to what extent EE can contribute towards the develop-
ment of skills such as problem-solving, working with others in a
group, and becoming more aware of the customs and needs of other
South African Journal of Education Vol 22(1) 2002 27
cultural groups. The responses were grouped into three categories,
namely positive attitudes, neutral attitudes and negative attitudes. The
results are discussed below.
The information in Table 1 indicates that the boys in the sample
were more positive about the inclusion of EE in the curriculum than
girls. More than 80% of the pupils considered it important to include
practical activities such as "market days" in the programme. Boys were
also more positive than girls about the role or value of EE in con-
tributing to their ability to solve problems and work together in
groups. Sixty percent of the boys and 54% of the girls responded in a
neutral or negative manner to questions on the contribution of EE to
cultural sensitivity. An interesting finding of the survey was that 84%
of the 30 black respondents (boys and girls) think that EE helps them
to be more sensitive towards other cultural groups.
Table 1 Perceptions of pupils toward entrepreneurship education
Criteria
Boys Girls
Positive
( %)
Neutral
( %)
Nega tive
( %)
Positive
( %)
Neutral
( %)
Nega tive
( %)
EE in the
curriculum
Exposure to
practical activities
Identify and solve
problems*
Group
work*
Cultural
sensitivity*
63
84
69
77
40
24
7
22
12
43
13
9
9
11
17
41
87
55
65
46
39
10
31
21
34
20
3
14
14
20
* Questions based on three critical outcomes identified by SAQA
Conclusions and recommendations
A well-planned and effective team effort is required to put the South
African economy on the road to victory. The improvement of econo-
mic growth and the creation of wealth for all South Africans will only
be achieved if all the possible roleplayers are engaged in this "battle".
Even children at primary school level should be included. In this
regard, even before entrepreneurship education was an issue in South
Africa, Dr Anton Rupert (1985:3) said that"... at home, at school and
university, and at every level of society" we will have to search for the
new entrepreneurs, train them, and inspire them.
The numerous initiatives and efforts of various role-players who
have taken an interest in promoting the education and growth of
entrepreneurship in South Africa over the past decade, as well as the
overall positive feedback from pupils such as those who completed the
questionnaire for this study, indicate that the "searching, training and
inspiring" of young entrepreneurs in South Africa is indeed on the
right track. A conclusion can be drawn that Curriculum 2005, and
specifically the education of entrepreneurship, is based on sound
pedagogical principles. The teaching of entrepreneurship should, in the
long run, undoubtedly contribute to the full development of learners
and the social wellbeing of the nation at large. It can, however, be
expected that the implementation of the new curriculum will be a
problem for some years to come. Care should be taken to ensure that
entrepreneurship education does not become another activity where
learners acquire predominently theoretical knowledge. Future research
could focus on ways to ensure that the practical and
"fun" element (Gouws, 1997:144) will be an integral part of the
programme. Consideration should be given to mentorship programmes
where older learners can for example be recruited for an internship at
a company. Research is also necessary to determine how teachers can
assume ownership "... both of the curriculum itself and the imple-
mentation process" (Rogan, 2000:121). Further empirical research is
needed to determine teachers' perceptions of the content and imple-
mentation of entrepreneurship in Curriculum 2005.
The many success stories about young entrepreneurs in South
Africa (North, 1995), and the story of Michelle Baard (1995) who acts
as a spokesperson for many other young entrepreneurs, confirm that
entrepreneurship education in South Africa over the past 10 years has
been a worthwile exercise:
"In these days, for us young people, it is hard to make money.
Many of us either do chores around the house, or sacrifice our
weekends and holidays doing work — some of us get no money!
Well, we've had enough! We've decided to be
ENTREPRENEURS!
Entrepreneurs are people that put their talents to use, and so they
make money. Every Friday, during our second break, we have a
flea-market. We sell ice-cream, sweets, chocolates, books, etc.
We all make so much money it's unbelievable! Well, there you
have it. So be an entrepreneur today!"
References
Baard M 1995. Essay on entrepreneurship. Rietondale Primary School, Pretoria.
Blacklaws D 1997. Entrepreneurs hip Up date, 1 Augus t .
Brown C 2000. Money, p ower, respect. Black Enterprise, 30:98-102.
Da vies EH 1991. Curricula and e nterprise. Collected p apers . NAPTOSA Conference, 10
Oc tober.
Department of Education 1997. Policy Document: Foundation Phase. Pretoria:
government Printer.
De partme nt of Education and Culture (HOA) 19 92. Working Document: Economic
Education. Pretoria: Government Printer.
De partme nt of Education and Culture (HOA) 19 94. Dr aft Co re Sy llabus : Economic
Education. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Dollinger MJ 199 5. Entrepreneurship. Strategies and resources. Homewood: Richard D
Irwin.
Edmond A 1995. Ho w to raise a s ucce ssful Black child. Black Enterprise, 26:162-165.
Esterhuizen JM 1996. Entrepreneurskap as opvoedingstaak van die ouerhuis.
DEd-proefskrif, Ra ndse Afrikaanse Universiteit, Johannesburg.
Financial NetNews 1998. Fleet targets youth market with new interactive site. 3:3.
Gouws E 1997. Entrepreneurship e duca tion: an educ ational pe rspec tive. South African
Journal of Education, 17:143-149.
Hanekom M 1995. Government support for small business. NAWBO Calendar, 5 July.
Hisrich RD & Peters MP 1998. Entre pren eurs hip, 4th edn. New York: Pre ntice Ha ll.
Jeeva nantham LS 19 99. Towards 2 005: proposals for curriculum change . South African
Journal of Education, 19:49-54.
Junior Achievement 1994. Mission State ment.
Kellner T 2000. Rockefellers in the hood. Forbes, 24 July.
Kroo n J (ed.) 1998. Entrepreneurship. Start your own business. Pretoria: Kagiso.
Lamb ing P & Kue hl C 20 00. Entre pren eurs hip. New York: Pre ntice Ha ll.
Maré WP & Crous MJ 1995. A theoretical perspective on the furtherance of
ent repreneur ship and bus ines s acumen a mongs t seconda ry s cho ol childre n in
South Africa. Paper read at the 8th Annual Conference of the International
Council for Small Business (Southern Africa). 9 April.
Moloi M 1995. Message from the chairperson. EWET Prospectus.
North EJ 1995. Entre pren eurs : winne rs tell it all . Pretoria: Kagiso.
Rogan JM 2000. Strawberries, cream and the implementation of Curriculum 2005:
towards a resea rch age nda. South African Journal of Education, 20:118-124.
Rup ert AE 1985. Gesoek: die nuwe entrepreneur. Pretoria: Universiteit van Pretoria.
Smith D 1999. Sc hooled in business . Black Enterprise, 30:203-205.
Suvendrini K 2001. Young Turks. Asian Business, 37:70.
The National Qualifications Framework 2000. Recording of Short Courses.
Va n Aa rdt I & Va n Aa rdt C 1 997. Entrepreneurship and new venture management.
Johannesb urg: Thomson.
Van Schoor WA 200 0. What they don' t teach you at university: skills, values, and
attitudes for the South African wo rkplace . South African Journal of Education,
20:41-46.
doc_836114369.pdf
With this paper about a decade of entrepreneurship education in south africa ernest north.
24
A decade of entrepreneurship education in South Africa
Ernest North
University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002 South Africa
[email protected]
To realise the ideal of a better life for all South Africans, the entrepreneurial energies of all our people (including children) should be
harnessed to ensure that the country's full potential for economic growth is unleashed. This article describes some initiatives taken by
roleplayers in both the private sector and the educational sector to engage in entrepreneurship education in South Africa over the past 10
years. Special emphasis is placed on a research project in Gauteng schools on the implementation of a pilot core syllabus for entre-
preneurship and economic education for pupils in the intermediate school phase. This programme entailed the training of teachers, and the
modification of the pilot syllabus. The perceptions of pupils who have recently been exposed to entrepreneurship education in Curriculum
2005 are also offered.
Introduction
The term entrepreneurship means different things to different people.
Peter Drucker, an authority on management theory, noted that al-
though the term has been used for more than 200 years, "... there has
been total confusion over the definition" (Lambing & Kuehl, 2000:
14). Van Aardt and Van Aardt (1997:4) refer to the Oxford English
Dictionary which defines an entrepreneur as one "... who organises,
manages, and assumes the risks of a business enterprise". Various
other authors agree, however, that there are some common aspects
which define the nature of entrepreneurship, namely risk taking, cre-
ativity, independence, and rewards (Hisrich & Peters, 1998; Kroon,
1998; Dollinger, 1995). According to Hisrich and Peters (1998:24),
these commonalities will continue to be the driving force behind the
notion of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship education in the
future.
The establishment, promotion and cultivation of a culture of
entrepreneurship among the youth is a topic that has received con-
siderable attention recently. Various centres, foundations and after-
school classes in entrepreneurship for children have been established
in countries such as the United States and Japan (Brown, 2000;
Suvendrini, 2001; Edmond, 1995). Kellner (2000:180-182) refers to
the National Foundation for Teaching Entrepreneurship (NFTE), a
nonprofit organisation that teaches inner-city children how to become
entrepreneurs. Thirty-six percent of 31 000 children who have gone
through the programme went on to start their own businesses, ranging
in annual revenues from $500 to $500 000. Publications such as Kid-
preneursNews (for children ages eight to twelve) and Black Enterprise
for Teens (ages thirteen to eighteen) are examples of publications in
the United States created to teach entrepreneurship skills to children
(Smith, 1999). As could be expected, initiatives to utilise modern tech-
nology to teach entrepreneurship competencies to children are already
under way. The Financial NetNews (1998:3) reports on the landing of
an interactive educational Website called Fleet Kids by Fleet Bank
which has been designed to teach children responsible financial plan-
ning and entrepreneurship.
Much has been said, written and done in South Africa over the
past 10 years to establish mechanisms whereby children can actively
become involved in entrepreneurial activities, and which could nurture
their entrepreneurial spirit. The main aim of the various formal and
informal programmes in entrepreneurship education is to teach child-
ren to become creative and constructive members of their commu-
nities, and to develop their entrepreneurial skills. In the words of
Moloi (1995:1), young entrepreneurs must become "... masters of their
own destinies".
Unfortunately, the state of the South African economy at present
is a cause for concern for the future adults of our country. They are
confronted with problems such as crime, corruption, mismanagement
and unemployment. The unemployment problem in South Africa is
causing anxiety not only to the government or roleplayers in the pri-
vate sector, but also to the younger generation. It is estimated that
more than 8 million people will be unemployed in South Africa by
2010 (Gouws, 1997:143). It is assumed that the effects of HIV/AIDS
have not been taken into account in this estimate. The world of work
has changed dramatically over the past few decades, and it can be ex-
pected to change even more rapidly in the new millennium. According
to Sunter (Van Schoor, 2000:41), the picture becomes even gloomier
because the South African schools "... are brilliant at educating child-
ren for the 1950s". This statement may be questioned, however, consi-
dering that valuable work is currently being done by teachers who are
committed to making a positive contribution to the education of our
youth.
For young people to escape from the vicious circle caused by
failings in the system, active intervention will be necessary. There is
therefore an urgent need for young people to be educated and trained
in the field of entrepreneurship. In order for them to become job-
creators rather than job-seekers, children should learn, from an early
age, to be knowledgeable consumers, develop the right attitude
towards work, and develop the skills needed to identify viable business
opportunities and eventually start their own business undertakings.
Entrepreneurship education will therefore contribute to the ideal of
empowering as many people as possible in order to unleash the
previously stifled human potential of all South Africans (Hanekom,
1995). Esterhuizen (1996) is of the opinion that this ideal will be
better accomplished when parents also become actively involved in
entrepreneurship education for their children at home.
The nature and scope, as well as the current implementation of
Curriculum 2005, have been subjected to much debate and scrutiny
(Rogan, 2000:118). It is, however, not the intention of this article to
engage in this debate. Rather, this article will focus on initiatives by
some roleplayers which have taken place over the past 10 years in both
the private sector and the educational sector as regards engagement in
entrepreneurship education in South Africa. The views and percep-
tions of children who have been exposed to the Curriculum 2005
entrepreneurship education programme will also be highlighted.
The plea for the advancement of entrepreneurship and also for the
establishment of mechanisms to include it in the formal school curri-
culum has come from various sources, including the formal educa-
tional sector, the private sector and non-governmental organisations
(NGOs).
Initiatives in the private sector
Apart from the unemployment problem, Maré and Crous (1995) and
Gouws (1997:143; 145) refer to other reasons why roleplayers in the
private sector should actively get involved in the promotion of entre-
preneurial activities among young people:
• the substantial "labour force imbalance", with an endemic and
worsening shortage of skilled labour
• the much lower percentage of South Africa's economically active
population that are presently self-employed compared with the
percentage in other countries
South African Journal of Education Copyright © 2002 EASA
Science Africa (Pretoria)
Vol 22(1) 24 – 27
South African Journal of Education Vol 22(1) 2002 25
• the high population growth rate in South Africa
• the high rate of illiteracy in the country
• the non-relevance of the education system and the fact that too
many black matriculants opt to take subjects such as History and
Biblical Studies.
Although the private sector and other concerned roleplayers might
confess that they have neglected this area in the past, various projects
have been launched and valuable contributions made by roleplayers
from the private sector over the past decade. Listed below are exam-
ples of a few roleplayers in the private sector who engaged in the ad-
vancement of entrepreneurship at school level prior to the official
introduction of entrepreneurship in the Curriculum 2005 programme.
It falls outside the scope of this article to discuss the valuable contri-
butions made by organisations that have developed outcomes-based
entrepreneurship programmes for the Economic and Management
Science (EMS) Learning Area.
Junior Achievement (JA)
JA Southern Africa is a nation-wide, autonomous, non-profit associa-
tion which offers experiential business skills programmes to young
people. It operates in consultation with the Centre for Developing Bu-
siness of the University of the Witwatersrand, other local universities
and 120 private sector and foreign investors. At the heart of JA's
operations are a range of experiental business education programmes
that bring business people and the youth together for their mutual
benefit. JA was brought to South Africa in the late 1970s and refined
to meet local needs and the particular nature of South African society
(Junior Achievement, 1994).
The Education with Enterprise Trust (EWET)
The process that led to the establishment of EWET and the initiation
of the Youth Enterprise Society (YES) began in 1989. A number of
young people and teachers expressed the need for the development of
skills appropriate to the "world of work" and more specifically for
skills directed towards the option of self-employment. The planning of
the YES pilot programme was finalised in 1993 and the programme
was initiated in 1994. YES is a national club movement that serves as
a laboratory for developing entrepreneurs among the South African
youth. Various business competencies are developed through a process
of learning-by-doing. Members participate by joining a team that
meets once a week. They compete against other teams on topics such
as how to start and run a business and how to earn money to help their
communities (EWET, 1995).
Entrepreneurship Education Initiative (EEI)
According to Blacklaws (1997), the EEI was formed under the auspi-
ces of Richards Bay Minerals. The aims of this initiative are to provide
a platform for increasing the number of business start-ups, and to
provide opportunities for schoolchildren to take part in competitions
that will contribute to their understanding of and engagement in entre-
preneurial activities. One of EEI's major achievements was gaining
recognition for the importance of entrepreneurship training from the
government, with particular emphasis on influencing the structure and
content of Curriculum 2005.
Other roleplayers and initiatives
Other roleplayers and initiatives that promote entrepreneurship
include: The ABSA Top Entrepreneur Competition 2001, which caters
for school children and university students, Cash for Schools (CFS)
which is a concept designed to assist South African schools with
fundraising ventures (CFS partners include Ackermans, Nestlé, Simba,
Liqui-Fruit and First National Bank), the Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut,
the Small Business Development Corporation, various chambers of
commerce, Expo for Young Scientists and tertiary institutions.
A study by Gouws (1997:144) found that almost 44% of the 60
respondents who are actively involved in promoting entrepreneurship
indicated that they are involved in entrepreneurship education at
schools. Two of the many prominent South African personalities who
also share the vision of entrepreneurship education for young people
are Clem Sunter, a scenario planner for Anglo American, and Law-
rence Mavundla, the President of ACHIB (African Council of Haw-
kers and Informal Business).
Entrepreneurship education in South Africa: a brief
historical overview
According to Maré and Crous (1995), many people blame the school
system for the lack of entrepreneurial exellence in South African.
Many school leavers who have not received tuition in subjects such as
Business Economics or Economics are sent into the working world
almost as "economic illiterates". It is believed that the objectives or
learning outcomes as described by the South African Qualifications
Authority (SAQA) will hopefully bring relief in this regard.
Education and curriculum experts have been involved since 1990
in various projects and programmes for introducing entrepreneurship
into the school curriculum. One of the first questions to be answered
was whether learners at primary schools were capable of understan-
ding matters related to economic activities, and if so, to what extent
(Davies, 1991). In an effort to answer these and many other questions,
the Superintendent-General of the former Department of Education
and Culture: House of Assembly, appointed a committee in 1991 to
investigate the feasibility of the inclusion of entrepreneurship as a
possible future school subject.
Concept core syllabus for Economic Education
Unfortunately, at the time when the abovementioned committee began
its operations, roleplayers from all the education departments were
unable, for a variety of reasons, to participate in the project. The sam-
ple therefore included Grade 1 to Grade 7 learners from six Model C
schools in the Pretoria region.
A thorough literature study and a situation analysis were carried
out prior to the execution of the project. This resulted firstly in the
realisation that there is indeed a need and place for entrepreneurship
to be included in the school curriculum. Secondly, it became clear that
entrepreneurship should not be offered as a subject on its own. Rather,
it should be approached in a holistic manner as part of "the big pic-
ture". This big picture focuses on the economic reality which learners
(even in Grade 1) are involved in daily. A working document, which
served as a draft core syllabus, was compiled. For practical reasons
this "new subject" was called Economic Education. The overall objec-
tives of the proposed new subject were described as follows:
"The knowledge and skills pupils obtain must be of such a nature
that they should realise and discover that they:
• are participants or roleplayers in the economy;
• should become skillful consumers;
• must manage their own money matters in a responsible way;
• should develop a positive attitude towards productive work;
and
• can become successful entrepreneurs who could engage in
entrepreneurial activities" (Department of Education and
Culture: House of Assembly, 1992:1).
The syllabus contains the following modules: basic economic concepts
and processes, consumer skills, productivity and entrepreneurship.
Learners in the senior primary phase (Grades 6 and 7) were also briefly
introduced to very basic accounting and aspects relating to business
law.
Pilot study
The research team, which comprised three curriculum researchers in
the field of economic sciences, embarked on a pilot study that was
conducted in primary schools in the Pretoria region. Approximately 20
teachers from the six schools were exposed to an in-service training
programme for 6 weeks in 1992. The pilot core syllabus was intro-
duced and tested in the six schools during 1993. When required,
guidance and further training for teachers was offered. After evaluation
South African Journal of Education Vol 22(1) 2002 26
of the syllabus by teachers at the end of 1993, certain amendments
were made. The process (guiding teachers and modifying the syllabus)
was repeated in 1994. The document was then finalised and submitted
to the Department of National Education as a working document for
use in the curriculum renewal process by the new government.
Entrepreneurship in the Curriculum 2005 programme
In many instances the development and implementation of a new
curriculum is a rather difficult and costly exercise, and it is often not
a very popular activity. Many problems or pitfalls may hamper the
successful implementation of the Curriculum 2005 programme. The
following serve as examples: Firstly, schools in South Africa differ
from one another in many respects, for example the professional
backgrounds and educational levels of teachers in rural, township and
urban areas are not the same (Rogan, 2000:118). And secondly, the
cultural background and differences of learners in the school system
(Gouws, 1997:146), as well as the conversion of the curriculum con-
tent from being Eurocentric to being Afrocentric (Jeevanantham, 1999:
49), present many challenges for both curriculum developers and the
schools that have to implement the curriculum.
Entrepreneurship as a critical outcome
The Curriculum 2005 programme of the Department of Education
identifies 12 critical outcomes. These critical outcomes are the broad,
generic cross-curricular outcomes which underpin the Constitution,
and which have been adopted by the South African Qualifications
Authority (SAQA). These outcomes will ensure that learners gain the
skills, knowledge and values that will allow them to contribute to their
own success as well as the success of their families, and the nation as
a whole. SAQA proposes an outcome with the specific intention of
enabling individuals to identify and engage in entrepreneurial oppor-
tunities (The National Qualifications Framework, 2000:23).
A study of all the relevant documents disclosed that entrepre-
neurship is listed as one of six phase organisers identified to facilitate
the planning, organisation and assessment of the curriculum develop-
ment process. This should ensure that children are given opportunities
to develop as active citizens capable of contributing to the building of
a democratic society (Policy Document of the Department of Edu-
cation, 1997:20). Teachers are therefor not specifically trained to be
entrepreneurial. Entrepreneurship as a field of study falls under the
Learning Area: Economic and Management Sciences (EMS). In the
foundation phase (Grades 1 to 3) the Life Skills programme makes
provision for entrepreneurship. The following four modules are pre-
scribed for the teaching of entrepreneurship in the foundation phase:
• Needs in society
• Characteristics of an entrepreneur
• Starting one's own business
• Productivity
Listed below are those Specific Outcomes, Assessment Criteria and
Range Statements for EMS in the Foundation Phase as contained in
the Policy Document of the Department of Education (EMS, 1997:
5-19) that were included in the original working document (syllabus)
for Economic Education (Department of Education and Culture:
House of Assembly, 1994:1-6) which was submitted to the Department
of National Education in 1994:
• SO1: Engage in entrepreneurial activities: Needs in society, cha-
racteristics of entrepreneurs, starting a business, business plan,
productivity
• SO2: Demonstrate personal role in economic environment:
Rights of the consumer
• SO3: Demonstrate the principles of supply and demand and the
practices of production: Factors of production, exchange of goods
and services
• SO4: Demonstrate managerial expertise and administration pro-
ficiency: Planning and organising
• SO6: Evaluate different economic systems: Types of ownership,
profit motive
Informal training of teachers
Personal interviews with headmasters and teachers of the six schools
who were involved in the pilot study in 1992, as well as discussions
with teachers involved in a recent study, confirmed that very few
teachers in the intermediate school phase have had formal training in
the economic sciences. Prior to the implementation of Curriculum
2005, pro-active initiatives entailed the training and in-service training
of teachers to prepare them for the implementation of the new entre-
preneurship programme in schools. More than 20 000 pupils, teachers
and parents have been exposed to the programme over the past 5 years.
Initially only schools in the Pretoria region were included in the pro-
gramme. Fortunately, the programme has recently been expanded to
make provision for schools in the Mpumalanga province where an
Honours graduate in Marketing was trained to take responsibility for
the running of courses in Middelburg. Plans are now under way to
start training programmes in the rural areas, the most recent pro-
gramme being (March 2000) run in an ex-model C school where 30
pupils from previously disadvantaged communities participated.
The content of the entrepreneurship programme makes provision
for the following modules:
• A broad overview of the nature and scope of entrepreneurship.
Basic business and economic concepts are explained and related
to the role of entrepreneurs in the production and delivery of
goods and services.
• Discovering one's potential as a future entrepreneur. Charac-
teristics of an entrepreneur and case studies of successful young
South African entrepreneurs are discussed.
• Identifying viable business opportunities. Learners are challenged
to identify needs in their local communities and propose solutions
as to how they can be involved in meeting those needs.
• Drawing up business and marketing plans. The learners are re-
quested to do "research" and draw up a simple business and mar-
keting plan for a future business undertaking they would like to
be involved in.
• Starting and managing one's own business. Learners are taught
the basics of business management.
• Develop the right attitude towards money.
Schools are also encouraged to include a "market" or "entrepreneur-
ship" day in the programme. On these occasions learners are given the
opportunity for hands-on-experience of entrepreneurship. They bring
their products to school and sell them to fellow students during breaks.
Prior to this specific day, learners are guided on the drawing up of a
business plan. Younger learners are encouraged to include the fol-
lowing in their business plans:
• What they want to sell (business idea)
• How the product will be made (production)
• How much it will cost (price)
• How they will inform other pupils about the product (advertising)
Pupils' perceptions of entrepreneurship education
Traditional curriculum theory states that scientific curriculum develop-
ment hinges on three basic determinants, namely, societal needs, the
content of the subject matter (subject integrity), and the needs and
wants of the learners. What do learners feel and think of the entrepre-
neurship education they have been exposed to since entrepreneurship
was introduced in the syllabus?
A questionnaire was distributed at 3 schools, to 150 pupils, in the
intermediate school phase (Grades 7 and 8) in September 2000. Care
was taken to ensure that the EMS in Curriculum 2005 has been imple-
mented in the schools that were selected. The non-probability sample
consisted of 80 boys and 70 girls. A 5-point Likert scale was used as
the research instrument to determine the pupils' perceptions regarding
entrepreneurship education. They were asked to indicate whether
entrepreneurship education (EE) should be included in the broad
curriculum, and to what extent EE can contribute towards the develop-
ment of skills such as problem-solving, working with others in a
group, and becoming more aware of the customs and needs of other
South African Journal of Education Vol 22(1) 2002 27
cultural groups. The responses were grouped into three categories,
namely positive attitudes, neutral attitudes and negative attitudes. The
results are discussed below.
The information in Table 1 indicates that the boys in the sample
were more positive about the inclusion of EE in the curriculum than
girls. More than 80% of the pupils considered it important to include
practical activities such as "market days" in the programme. Boys were
also more positive than girls about the role or value of EE in con-
tributing to their ability to solve problems and work together in
groups. Sixty percent of the boys and 54% of the girls responded in a
neutral or negative manner to questions on the contribution of EE to
cultural sensitivity. An interesting finding of the survey was that 84%
of the 30 black respondents (boys and girls) think that EE helps them
to be more sensitive towards other cultural groups.
Table 1 Perceptions of pupils toward entrepreneurship education
Criteria
Boys Girls
Positive
( %)
Neutral
( %)
Nega tive
( %)
Positive
( %)
Neutral
( %)
Nega tive
( %)
EE in the
curriculum
Exposure to
practical activities
Identify and solve
problems*
Group
work*
Cultural
sensitivity*
63
84
69
77
40
24
7
22
12
43
13
9
9
11
17
41
87
55
65
46
39
10
31
21
34
20
3
14
14
20
* Questions based on three critical outcomes identified by SAQA
Conclusions and recommendations
A well-planned and effective team effort is required to put the South
African economy on the road to victory. The improvement of econo-
mic growth and the creation of wealth for all South Africans will only
be achieved if all the possible roleplayers are engaged in this "battle".
Even children at primary school level should be included. In this
regard, even before entrepreneurship education was an issue in South
Africa, Dr Anton Rupert (1985:3) said that"... at home, at school and
university, and at every level of society" we will have to search for the
new entrepreneurs, train them, and inspire them.
The numerous initiatives and efforts of various role-players who
have taken an interest in promoting the education and growth of
entrepreneurship in South Africa over the past decade, as well as the
overall positive feedback from pupils such as those who completed the
questionnaire for this study, indicate that the "searching, training and
inspiring" of young entrepreneurs in South Africa is indeed on the
right track. A conclusion can be drawn that Curriculum 2005, and
specifically the education of entrepreneurship, is based on sound
pedagogical principles. The teaching of entrepreneurship should, in the
long run, undoubtedly contribute to the full development of learners
and the social wellbeing of the nation at large. It can, however, be
expected that the implementation of the new curriculum will be a
problem for some years to come. Care should be taken to ensure that
entrepreneurship education does not become another activity where
learners acquire predominently theoretical knowledge. Future research
could focus on ways to ensure that the practical and
"fun" element (Gouws, 1997:144) will be an integral part of the
programme. Consideration should be given to mentorship programmes
where older learners can for example be recruited for an internship at
a company. Research is also necessary to determine how teachers can
assume ownership "... both of the curriculum itself and the imple-
mentation process" (Rogan, 2000:121). Further empirical research is
needed to determine teachers' perceptions of the content and imple-
mentation of entrepreneurship in Curriculum 2005.
The many success stories about young entrepreneurs in South
Africa (North, 1995), and the story of Michelle Baard (1995) who acts
as a spokesperson for many other young entrepreneurs, confirm that
entrepreneurship education in South Africa over the past 10 years has
been a worthwile exercise:
"In these days, for us young people, it is hard to make money.
Many of us either do chores around the house, or sacrifice our
weekends and holidays doing work — some of us get no money!
Well, we've had enough! We've decided to be
ENTREPRENEURS!
Entrepreneurs are people that put their talents to use, and so they
make money. Every Friday, during our second break, we have a
flea-market. We sell ice-cream, sweets, chocolates, books, etc.
We all make so much money it's unbelievable! Well, there you
have it. So be an entrepreneur today!"
References
Baard M 1995. Essay on entrepreneurship. Rietondale Primary School, Pretoria.
Blacklaws D 1997. Entrepreneurs hip Up date, 1 Augus t .
Brown C 2000. Money, p ower, respect. Black Enterprise, 30:98-102.
Da vies EH 1991. Curricula and e nterprise. Collected p apers . NAPTOSA Conference, 10
Oc tober.
Department of Education 1997. Policy Document: Foundation Phase. Pretoria:
government Printer.
De partme nt of Education and Culture (HOA) 19 92. Working Document: Economic
Education. Pretoria: Government Printer.
De partme nt of Education and Culture (HOA) 19 94. Dr aft Co re Sy llabus : Economic
Education. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Dollinger MJ 199 5. Entrepreneurship. Strategies and resources. Homewood: Richard D
Irwin.
Edmond A 1995. Ho w to raise a s ucce ssful Black child. Black Enterprise, 26:162-165.
Esterhuizen JM 1996. Entrepreneurskap as opvoedingstaak van die ouerhuis.
DEd-proefskrif, Ra ndse Afrikaanse Universiteit, Johannesburg.
Financial NetNews 1998. Fleet targets youth market with new interactive site. 3:3.
Gouws E 1997. Entrepreneurship e duca tion: an educ ational pe rspec tive. South African
Journal of Education, 17:143-149.
Hanekom M 1995. Government support for small business. NAWBO Calendar, 5 July.
Hisrich RD & Peters MP 1998. Entre pren eurs hip, 4th edn. New York: Pre ntice Ha ll.
Jeeva nantham LS 19 99. Towards 2 005: proposals for curriculum change . South African
Journal of Education, 19:49-54.
Junior Achievement 1994. Mission State ment.
Kellner T 2000. Rockefellers in the hood. Forbes, 24 July.
Kroo n J (ed.) 1998. Entrepreneurship. Start your own business. Pretoria: Kagiso.
Lamb ing P & Kue hl C 20 00. Entre pren eurs hip. New York: Pre ntice Ha ll.
Maré WP & Crous MJ 1995. A theoretical perspective on the furtherance of
ent repreneur ship and bus ines s acumen a mongs t seconda ry s cho ol childre n in
South Africa. Paper read at the 8th Annual Conference of the International
Council for Small Business (Southern Africa). 9 April.
Moloi M 1995. Message from the chairperson. EWET Prospectus.
North EJ 1995. Entre pren eurs : winne rs tell it all . Pretoria: Kagiso.
Rogan JM 2000. Strawberries, cream and the implementation of Curriculum 2005:
towards a resea rch age nda. South African Journal of Education, 20:118-124.
Rup ert AE 1985. Gesoek: die nuwe entrepreneur. Pretoria: Universiteit van Pretoria.
Smith D 1999. Sc hooled in business . Black Enterprise, 30:203-205.
Suvendrini K 2001. Young Turks. Asian Business, 37:70.
The National Qualifications Framework 2000. Recording of Short Courses.
Va n Aa rdt I & Va n Aa rdt C 1 997. Entrepreneurship and new venture management.
Johannesb urg: Thomson.
Van Schoor WA 200 0. What they don' t teach you at university: skills, values, and
attitudes for the South African wo rkplace . South African Journal of Education,
20:41-46.
doc_836114369.pdf